LIFE SCIENCE 1 LECTURE NOTES

1. About 15 billion years ago the physical universe began with a phenomenon called the “Big Bang.” Two theories exist about the universe: The infinitely expanding universe and the pulsating universe.
2. Our galaxy, the Milky Way came into being about 10 billion years ago. It contains hundreds of billions of stars and is @100,000 light years across. One galactic rotation takes 230 million years. Our galaxy belongs to a local group. Groups of local groups are called superclusters, and all superclusters make up the physical Universe. The known Universe as far as our technology will allow us to see is @ 40,000,000,000 light years across.
3. Our Solar System consists of our sun (star) and nine planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto.
4. The oldest surface crustal rocks on Earth are about 4.6 billion years old.
5. Life first generates in the sea about 3.5 - 4 billion years ago. These first living organisms were much like bacteria of today. They were prokaryotic, that is having no nucleus or membrane bound organelles.
6. There were basically two types of primitive cells that developed: Cells without chlorophyll and those with chlorophyll. The chlorophyll bearing cells become the precursors of plants and the non-chlorophyll bearing cells become the precursors of animals.
7. Photosynthetic chlorophyll bearing cells generate free oxygen. This oxygen first combines with iron oar in the sea beds to form the layers of red ferric oxide present in the geologic strata. After this the oxygen begins to form the first primitive atmosphere.
8. Modern eukaryotic cells come into being as a result of a symbiotic process. This process results in the formation of mitochondria and chloroplasts in cells. The mitochondria often called the “powerhouse” of the cell allows cells to utilize oxygen. Chloroplasts allow the cells with them to undergo photosynthesis. This idea was first entertained at the beginning of the 20th century by a physician, Dr. Wallin. It was later proven by Dr. Lynn Margullis of the Uuniversity of Massachusetts at Amhurst.
9. The plants were the first life forms on land. They developed in sequence from simple algae to mosses and liverworts to ferns to gymnosperms, to angiosperms. Plants exhibit an alternation of generations life cycle. That is asexual to sexual and back to asexual.
10. In the sea animal forms took two forms: Invertebrate and vertebrate. The invertebrates were the first animals to venture onto the land. Of these the insects were the first creatures to fly. Insects are the dominant multicellular animal life forms on the planet today. There may be as many as 30 million species.
11. Vertebrates ventured onto the land in sequence from lobe finned fish to amphibians, to reptiles. From the reptiles two directions are taken one to the mammals and the other to the dinosaurs and then from the dinosaurs to the birds.
12. Three types of mammals exist: Monotremes, Marsupials, and Placentals. Of the Placentals the primates are of the greatest interest to us. The Primate group includes: Lemurs, Tarsairs, Gibbons, Orangutans, Gorillas, Chimpanzees, and Man.
13. Man as modern man has been on the planet for @ 70 thousand years. Several primitive humanoid species existed before modern man. One of the most permanent was Neanderthal man. Modern man and Neanderthal man overlapped each other in our early history. Two theories are presented relative to their coexistence. One that modern man hunted down and eliminated Neanderthals to prevent back breeding and one that indicates that modern man simply out did them in ingenuity and simply pushed them to extinction.
14. The earliest ideas of science were practical relative to human survival: Searches for food, shelter, protection from predation, and other necessities.
15. Early modern man was what has been called by anthropologists as a “Hunter Gatherer tribal Society.” Small family based groups of early humans wandered the land in search of necessities of life.
16. About 10 thousand years ago agriculture came into existence and this event altered the course of human development. Humans settled down into small communities. These communities gradually grew to become what have been called“city states.”
17. It is with one of the larger of these city states that the beginnings of modern science have their origin. The Macedonian Empire. Macedonia was being ruled by King Phillip. He had a son. The boy who was Alexander the Great set the stage for many things. Most importantly, he had a private teacher. The first of the five great scientists, Aristotle.
18. There throughout history have been literally tens of thousands of scientists, all of which have made great contributions to humanity. Five of these however completely altered the course of human history.
19. Aristotle born in 384 BC in Stagirus, Macedonia, Greece, and died in 322 BC in Chalcis, Euboea, Greece. Aristotle, more than any other thinker, determined the orientation and the content of Western intellectual history.
20. It was Aristotle that designed not only weapons of war but also outlined battle plans that allowed Alexander to conquer the known world within the first 30 years of his life. During this process Alexander established the city of Alexandria on the north coast of Egypt and placed one of his generals, Ptolemy, in place as the ruler of Egypt.
21. Alexandria was the seat of learning of the ancient world, a position it held for centuries. The crown jewel of the city was the University and great Library. The Library held the entire written record of the world at the time.
22. The elite of the empire sent their children to Alexandria to be educated in the knowledge of the day. The system of education was based upon the ideas of Aristotle. He set in place a system that had a curriculum of: History, Government, Language, Mathematics, Science, the Arts, and Physical Education. This is in fact the basic educational system of today.
23. When Alexander died his empire began to crumble. The Roman Empire came to power and a second stage of scientific development had its beginnings. The Romans were conquerors and not for the most part creative thinkers. They in fact stole the ideas of the nations and cultures they conquered. They enshrined the teachings of Aristotle as the highest epitome of scientific reason. The Roman “scientist and scholar” Pliny the Elder merely translated these and other writings in Latin. Pliny met his fate in about 70 AD in Pompeii with the eruption of Mt Vesuvius.
24. Julius Caesar with dreams or rebuilding the empire of Alexander sails into Alexandria. The famous story of Caesar and Cleopatra takes place. Cleopatra was the last of the Ptolemy family to rule Egypt. The main event of the story is the burning of the Library of Alexandria. This one event in the minds of the scholars of all disciplines set the development of human civilization bact at least a thousand years!
25. It is into this setting that the stage is set for powerful change in science. About 2 thousand years ago in Judea a province of the Roman Empire a boy was born named Joshua Ben Joseph (Jesus Christ) who changed the course of human history. The Roman Empire under Constantine in the second century AD adopted Christianity as the state religion after nearly two centuries of persecution and the Roman Catholic Church came into existence. In 325 AD the council at Nicea met and adopted those writings that they would accept in the Cannon of Scripture. The Vulgate was then translated from the Greek in to Latin. The Church set Aristotle as the supreme scientific authority . A policy that was to dominate the western world for about a thousand years through the Dark Ages.
26. During the dark ages individuality and freedom of though was severely suppressed. Violations of civil and religious law were punished in many instances in unspeakable ways. The peasant class were discouraged from reading and the governmental officials and clerics administered their interpretation of laws. The German goldsmith Guttenburg's invention of the moveable type printing press in 1450 allowed many things. First the Scriptures were placed into the hands of the common man and secondly written laws were also available. Prior to this time there was no concept of a separation of church and state. The ideas of these freedoms had their first awakenings with the invention of the press.
27. Scientific literature also began to be printed and published. The first books about plants were called “Herbals.” The first books about animals were called “Beastiaries.” Stagnation of thought and suppression began to come to a close.
28. The Renaissance begins in Italy ans such personalities as Da Vinci and Michelangelo began to do their own research beyond the writings of Aristotle. This period of enlightenment set the stage for all future human achievements.
29. The second of the five greatest scientists, Isaac Newton, one of the greatest scientists of all time, was born on January 4, 1643, in Woolsthorpe, near Grantham in Lincolnshire. He discovered the fundamental laws of physics and higher mathematics.
30. The third of the great scientists, Charles Darwin was born on February 12, 1809 in Shrewsbury, England. He was the British naturalist who became famous for his theories of evolution and natural selection. From 1831 to 1836 Darwin served as naturalist aboard the H.M.S. Beagle on a British scientific and mapping expedition around the world.
31. On the Galapagos Islands in the Pacific Ocean he noticed many variations among plants and animals of the same general type as those in South America. The expedition visited places around the world, and Darwin studied plants and animals everywhere he went, collecting specimens for further study. Upon his return to London Darwin conducted thorough research of his notes and specimens. He set these theories forth in his book called, "On the Origin of the Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life" (1859) or "The Origin of the Species" for short.
32. A number of scholars used the principles Darwin developed to justify their own ideas governing human society, politics, and business. The concept of “social Darwinism.” From this set of ideas sprang the Nazi Party in Germany and the Communist Party in Russia. It was a philosophy that promoted the concept of the end justifying the means!
33. The fourth of the great scientists, Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879 in Ulm, Wurttemberg, Germany. Einstein contributed more than any other scientist since Sir Isaac Newton to our understanding of physical reality.
34. The most well known of his works is Einstein's 1905 paper proposing "the special theory of relativity." Later in 1905 Einstein showed how mass and energy were equivalent expressing it in the famous equation: E=mc2 (energy equals mass times the velocity of light squared). This equation became a cornerstone in the development of nuclear energy.
35. The fifth and greatest of the five, Stephen William Hawking, was born on 8 January 1942 (300 years after the death of Galileo) in Oxford, England.. Stephen Hawking has worked on the basic laws which govern the universe. Professor Hawking has twelve honorary degrees. Although confined to a wheel chair he continues to combine family life (he has three children and one grandchild), and his research into theoretical physics together with an extensive program of travel and public lectures. "If we find the answer to that, (a complete theory of the universe), it would be the ultimate triumph of human reason - for then we would know the mind of God."-Stephen Hawking.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Initial Observations and Objectives

Scientists are curious about their surroundings and may notice something and want to understand more about it. Curiosity leads to observations. As a result, when documented observations, questions arise which are then formulated into hypotheses.

The scientific method is the process by which scientists endeavor to construct an accurate representation of the world. In summary, the scientific method attempts to minimize the influence of bias or prejudice when testing an hypothesis or a theory.

The scientific method has four steps:

1. Observation and description of a phenomenon or group of phenomena.
2. Formulation of an hypothesis to explain the phenomena.
3. Use of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena, or to predict quantitatively the results of new observations.
4. Performance of experimental tests of the predictions by several independent experimenters and properly performed experiments.

Hypothesis Formulation - As observations are made, questions are formulated and scientists try to answer these questions, which leads to guesses or hypotheses. If observations do not support these statements, the hypothesis is rejected.

Data Collection - In order to test the hypotheses, data must be collected. Scientists must design a data collection plan which considers: what to collect?, when to collect?, where to collect?, and how many samples are necessary? Developing sample surveys involves determining appropriate sample size, monitoring frequency and the need for repetition. Through the use of variables and controls, results can be determined and documented. Variables are those factors being tested in an experiment, which are usually compared to a control. A control is a known measure to which scientists can compare their results.
Hypotheses, Models, Theories and Laws

An hypothesis is a limited statement regarding cause and effect in specific situations. In other words it is a possible explanation based upon best evidence and past experience. It also refers to our state of knowledge before experimental work has been performed and perhaps even before new phenomena have been predicted.

The word model is reserved for situations when it is known that the hypothesis has at least limited validity. A often-cited example of this is the Bohr model of the atom, in which, in an analogy to the solar system, the electrons are described has moving in circular orbits around the nucleus. This is not an accurate depiction of what an atom really looks like, but the model does succeed in mathematically representing the energies of the quantum states of the electron in the simplest case, the hydrogen atom.

A scientific theory or law represents an hypothesis, or a group of related hypotheses, which has been confirmed through repeated experimental tests. Accepted scientific theories and laws become part of our understanding of the universe and the basis for exploring less well-understood areas of knowledge. Theories are not easily discarded because new discoveries are first assumed to fit into the existing theoretical framework. It is only when, after repeated experimental tests, the new phenomenon cannot be accommodated that scientists seriously question the theory and attempt to modify it.
Changes in scientific thought and theories occur, of course, sometimes revolutionizing our view of the world. The key force for change is the scientific method, and its emphasis on experiment.

If the experiments bear out the hypothesis it may come to be regarded as a theory or law of nature. If the experiments do not bear out the hypothesis, it must be rejected or modified. There is always the possibility that a new observation or a new experiment will conflict with a long-standing theory.

Testing hypotheses

Experimental tests may lead either to the confirmation of the hypothesis, or to the ruling out of the hypothesis. The scientific method requires that an hypothesis be ruled out or modified if its predictions are clearly and repeatedly incompatible with experimental tests. The scientist must also determine which equipment, supplies or materials are necessary to complete the study. Prior to conducting an experiment it is important to document data collection methods. This step will ensure the quality of the experiment if someone else should reproduce it. Data can be represented by many formats. Data can be defined as a single piece of information such as names; dates or values made from observations. When conducting an experiment, it is also important to record all measurements, even if they don't seem correct.

No matter how elegant a theory is, its predictions must agree with experimental results if we are to believe that it is a valid description of nature. Experiments may test the theory directly or may test for consequences derived from the theory using mathematics and logic Note that the necessity of experiment also implies that a theory must be testable. Theories which cannot be tested and have no observable ramifications do not qualify as scientific theories. Analysis of the Data - This step is necessary to prove or disprove a hypothesis by experimentation. The methods involved in testing/analyzing the data are also important since an experiment should be repeated by others to ensure the quality of results. For instance, if two people on different sides of the country decide to perform the same experiment, they should end up with the same results. Statistics are then used to analyze the data. Descriptive statistics are a means of summarizing observational data through the calculation of a mean, mode, average, standard deviation, variance, etc. More advanced comparisons can also be completed. This step is very important as it transforms raw data into information, which can be used to report results in a user-friendly format. Summarization of Results - The presentation of the results is very important. Often scientists will rely heavily on graphics, tables, flow charts, maps and diagrams to facilitate the interpretation of the results. Graphics can be used to model future predictions.

Summarization of Results

The presentation of the results is very important. Often scientists will rely heavily on graphics, tables, flow charts, maps and diagrams to facilitate the interpretation of the results. Graphics can be used to model future predictions.

Discussion of Limitations and Conclusions

This is the section where the hypothesis is accepted or rejected. Many scientists no longer try to define cause and effect parameters, but instead identify relationships between the data. In this manner, ideas can be formed about why certain results were found while identifying previous studies that may have had similar or contradicting results. It is important to reference all studies so that other scientists can refer to them if necessary.

Identification of Future Research Needs

This may include areas of related interest that should be studied to better understand the subject. This section may give information about limitations of the study, such as what items should be modified to try to reach the intended goal.

If the predictions of a long-standing theory are found to be in disagreement with new experimental results, the theory may be discarded as a description of reality. We are all familiar with theories which had to be discarded in the face of experimental evidence. In the field of astronomy, the earth-centered description of the planetary orbits was overthrown by the Copernican system, in which the sun was placed at the center of a series of concentric, circular planetary orbits. Later, this theory was modified, as measurements of the planets motions were found to be compatible with elliptical, not circular, orbits, and still later planetary motion was found to be derivable from Newton's laws.

Error in experiments have several sources. First, there is error intrinsic to instruments of measurement. Because this type of error has equal probability of producing a measurement higher or lower numerically than the "true" value, it is called random error. Second, there is non-random or systematic error, due to factors which bias the result in one direction. No measurement, and therefore no experiment, can be perfectly precise. At the same time, in science we have standard ways of estimating and in some cases reducing errors. Thus it is important to determine the accuracy of a particular measurement and, when stating quantitative results, to quote the measurement error. A measurement without a quoted error is meaningless. The comparison between experiment and theory is made within the context of experimental errors.

Common Mistakes in Applying the Scientific Method

As already stated, the scientific method attempts to minimize the influence of the scientist's bias on the outcome of an experiment. That is, when testing an hypothesis or a theory, the scientist may have a preference for one outcome or another, and it is important that this preference not bias the results or their interpretation. The most fundamental error is to mistake the hypothesis for an explanation of a phenomenon, without performing experimental tests. Sometimes "common sense" and "logic" tempt us into believing that no test is needed. There are numerous examples of this, dating from the Greek philosophers to the present day.
Another common mistake is to ignore or rule out data which do not support the hypothesis. Ideally, the experimenter is open to the possibility that the hypothesis is correct or incorrect. Sometimes, however, a scientist may have a strong belief that the hypothesis is true (or false), or feels internal or external pressure to get a specific result. In that case, there may be a psychological tendency to find "something wrong", such as systematic effects, with data which do not support the scientist's expectations, while data which do agree with those expectations may not be checked as carefully. The lesson is that all data must be handled in the same way.

Another common mistake arises from the failure to estimate quantitatively systematic errors (and all errors). There are many examples of discoveries which were missed by experimenters whose data contained a new phenomenon, but who explained it away as a systematic background. Conversely, there are many examples of alleged "new discoveries" which later proved to be due to systematic errors not accounted for by the "discoverers."

In a field where there is active experimentation and open communication among members of the scientific community, the biases of individuals or groups may cancel out, because experimental tests are repeated by different scientists who may have different biases. In addition, different types of experimental setups have different sources of systematic errors. Over a period spanning a variety of experimental tests (usually at least several years), a consensus develops in the community as to which experimental results have stood the test of time.

Circumstances in which the Scientific Method is not applicable

While the scientific method is necessary in developing scientific knowledge, it is also useful in everyday problem-solving. What do you do when your telephone doesn't work? Is the problem in the hand set, the cabling inside your house, the hookup outside, or in the workings of the phone company? The process you might go through to solve this problem could involve scientific thinking, and the results might contradict your initial expectations.

Like any good scientist, you may question the range of situations in which the scientific method may be applied. The scientific method works best in situations where one can isolate the phenomenon of interest, by eliminating or accounting for extraneous factors, and where one can repeatedly test the system under study after making limited, controlled changes in it.

Conclusion

The scientific method is intricately associated with science, the process of human inquiry that pervades the modern era on many levels. While the method appears simple and logical in description, there is perhaps no more complex question than that of knowing how we come to know things.
Summarization of Results

The presentation of the results is very important. Often scientists will rely heavily on graphics, tables, flow charts, maps and diagrams to facilitate the interpretation of the results. Graphics can be used to model future predictions.

Why is the Scientific Method Important?

The scientific method has played an instrumental part in scientific research for almost 500 years. From Galileo's experiments back in the 1590s to current scientific research, the scientific method has contributed to the creation of vaccines and advancements in medicine and technology. Through the use of the scientific method, scientific theories can be tested. A scientific theory is a logical explanation of observed events. Once a scientific method has been tested and widely accepted as true it becomes scientific Law. However, scientific methods must be continually examined for possible errors. Openness to new ideas and an organized approach of skepticism are necessary to protect against collective bias into scientific results. The manner in which the hypothesis is formed, as well as the way data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted all need to be monitored for the potential introduction of bias. The scientific method also ensures the quality of data for public use. This can be completed through submitting work for a peer review. A peer review is a critical review by technical experts without a vested interest in the particular investigation. Peer reviews confirm that the research has been conducted in a scientifically sound manner.

Introduction to Basic Chemistry

1. Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. It is made up of building units called chemical elements. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen make up 96 percent of body weight. These elements together with phosphorus and calcium make up 99 percent of total body weight. Units of matter of all chemical elements are called atoms. Atoms consist of a nucleus, which contains protons and neutrons, and orbiting electrons moving in energy levels. The total number of protons of an atom is its atomic number. This number is equal to the number of electrons in the atom.
2. The electrons are the part of an atom that actively participate in chemical reactions. A molecule is the smallest unit of two or more combined atoms. A molecule containing two or more different kinds of atoms is a compound. In an ionic bond, outer energy level electrons are transferred from one atom to another. The transfer forms ions, whose unlike charges attract each other and form ionic bonds. In a covalent bond, there is a sharing of pairs of outer-energy level electrons. Hydrogen bonding provides temporary bonding between certain atoms within large complex molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids.
3. Chemical Reactions - Synthesis reactions involve the combination of reactants to produce a new molecule. The reactions are anabolic: bonds are formed. In decomposition reactions, a substance breaks down into other substances. The reactions are catabolic: bonds are broken. Exchange reactions involve the replacement of one atom or atoms by another atom or atoms. In reversible reactions, end products can revert to the original combining molecules. The sum of all synthetic and decomposition reactions that occur within an organism is referred to as metabolism. When chemical bonds are formed, energy is needed. When bonds are broken, energy is released. This is known as chemical bond energy.
4. Inorganic substances usually lack carbon, contain ionic bonds, resist decomposition, and dissolve readily in water. Water is the most abundant substance in the body. It is an excellent solvent and suspending medium, participates in chemical reactions, absorbs and releases heat slowly, and lubricates. Acids, bases, and salts dissociate into ions in water. An acid ionizes into H+ ions, a base ionizes into OH- ions. A salt ionizes into neither H+ nor OH- ions. Cations are positively charged ions; anions are negatively charged ions. On the pH scale, 7 represents neutrality. Values below 7 indicate acid solutions, and values above 7 indicate alkaline solutions. The pH values of different parts of living organisms are maintained by buffer systems, which usually consist of a weak acid and a weak base. Buffer systems eliminate excess H+ ions and excess OH- ions in order to maintain pH homeostasis.
5. Organic substances always contain carbon and usually hydrogen. Most organic substances contain covalent bonds and many are insoluble in water. Carbohydrates are sugars or starches that provide most of the energy needed for life. They may be monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides. Carbohydrates, and other organic molecules, are joined together to form larger molecules with the loss of water by a process called dehydration synthesis. In the reverse process called digestion or hydrolysis, large molecules are broken down into smaller ones by the addition of water. Lipids are a diverse group of compounds that includes the fats, phospholipids, steroids, vitamins E and K, and prostaglandins. Fats protect, insulate, provide energy, and are stored. Prostaglandins mimic the effects of hormones and are involved in the inflammatory response and the modulation of hormonal responses. Proteins are constructed from amino acids. They give structure to the body, regulate processes, provide protection, help muscles to contract, transport substances, and serve as enzymes. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic acids consisting of nitrogen bases, sugar, and phosphate groups. DNA is a double helix and is the primary chemical in genes. RNA differs in structure and chemical composition from DNA and is mainly concerned with protein synthesis reactions. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the major energy storing molecule of living things. When its energy is liberated, it is decomposed to adenosine diphosphate (ADP). ATP is manufactured from ADP using the energy supplied by various decomposition reactions, particularly of glucose. Cyclic AMP is closely related to ATP and assumes a function in certain hormonal reactions within the cell.

CELLS

1. A cell is the basic, living, structural and functional unit of the body. A generalized cell is a composite that represents various cells of the body. Cytology is the science concerned with the study of cells. The principal parts of a cell are the plasma (cell) membrane, cytoplasm, organelles, and inclusions. Extracellular materials are manufactured by the cell and deposited outside the plasma membrane.
2. The plasma (cell) membrane, surrounds the cell and separates it from other cells and the external environment. It is composed primarily of proteins and phospholipids. According to the fluid mosaic model, the membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer with integral and peripheral proteins. Functionally, the plasma membrane facilitates contact with other cells, provides receptors, and mediates the passage of materials.
3. The membrane's selectively permeable nature restricts the passage of certain substances. Substances can pass through the membrane depending on their molecular size, lipid solubility, electrical charges, and the presence of carriers.
4. Passive movement of materials through the cell membrane involve the kinetic energy of individual molecules. Diffusion is the net movement of molecules or ions from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration until an equilibrium is reached. In facilitated diffusion, certain molecules, such as glucose, combine with a carrier to become soluble in the phospholipid portion of the membrane. Osmosis is the movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of higher water concentration to an area of lower water concentration. During osmosis in an isotonic solution, red blood cells maintain their normal shape; in a hypotonic solution, they undergo hemolysis; in a hypertonic solution, they undergo crenation. Filtration is the movement of water and dissolved substances across a selectively permeable membrane by pressure.
5. Active processes involve the use of ATP by the cell. Active transport is the movement of ions across a cell membrane from lower to higher concentration. Endocytosis in the movement of substances through plasma membranes in which the membrane surrounds the substance, encloses it, and brings it into the cell. Phagocytosis is the ingestion of solid particles by pseudopodia. It is an important process used by white blood cells to destroy bacteria that enter the body. Pinocytosis is the ingestion of a liquid by the plasma membrane. In this process, the liquid becomes surrounded by a vacuole. Receptor-mediated endocytosis in the selective uptake of large molecules and particles by cells.
6. Cytoplasm is the substance inside the cell that contains organelles and inclusions. It is composed mostly of water plus proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and inorganic substances. The chemicals in cytoplasm are either in solution or in a colloid (suspended) form. Functionally, cytoplasm is the medium in which chemical reactions occur.
7. Organelles are specialized portions of the cell that carry on specific activities. They assume specific roles in cellular growth, maintenance, repair, and control.
8. The nucleus is usually the largest organelle, the nucleus controls cellular activities and contains the genetic information. Cells without nuclei, such as mature red blood cells, do not grow or reproduce. The parts of the nucleus include the nuclear membrane, karyolymph, nucleoli, and genetic material (DNA), comprising the chromosomes. Chromosomes consist of DNA and histones and consist of subunits called nucleosomes.
9. Ribosomes are granular structures consisting of ribosomal RNA and ribosomal proteins. They occur free (singly or in clusters) or in conjunction with endoplasmic reticulum. Functionally, ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.
10. The ER is a network of parallel membranes continuous with the plasma membrane and nuclear membrane. Granular or rough ER has ribosomes attached to it. Agranular or smooth ER does not contain ribosomes. The ER provides mechanical support, conducts intracellular nerve impulses in muscle cells, exchanges materials with cytoplasm, transports substances intracellularly, stores synthesized molecules. and helps export chemicals from the cell.
11. The Golgi complex consists of four to eight stacked, membranous sacs called cisternae. In conjunction with the ER, the Golgi complex secretes proteins and lipids and synthesizes and secretes glycoproteins. It is particularly prominent in secretory cells such as those in the pancreas or salivary glands.
12. Mitochondria consist of a smooth outer membrane and a folded inner membrane surrounding the interior matrix. The inner folds are called cristae. The mitochondria are called ''powerhouses of the cell'' because ATP is produced in them. They are endosymbionts and are actually cells living within cells.
13. Lysosomes are spherical structures that contain digestive enzymes. They are formed from Golgi complexes. They are found in large numbers in white blood cells, which carry on phagocytosis. If the cell is injured, lysosomes release enzymes and digest the cell. Thus they are called ''suicide packets.''
14. Peroxisomes are similar to Iysosomes, but smaller. They contain enzymes (e.g., catalase) involved in the metabolism of hydrogen peroxide.
15. Together microfilaments and microtubules form the cytoskeleton. Microfilaments are rod -like structures consisting of the protein actin or myosin. They are involved in muscular contraction, support, and movement. Microtubules are cylindrical structures consisting of the protein tubulin. They support, provide movement, and form the structure of flagella, cilia, centrioles, and the mitotic spindle.
16. The dense area of cytoplasm containing the centrioles is called a centrosome. It is located near the nucleus. Centrioles are paired cylinders arranged at right angles to one another. They assume an important role in cell reproduction.
17. Cilia and flagella are cellular projections have the same basic structure and are used in movement. If the projections are few and long, they are called flagella. If they are numerous and hairlike, they are called cilia. The flagellum on a sperm cell moves the entire cell. The cilia on cells of the respiratory tract move foreign matter trapped in mucus along the cell surfaces toward the throat for elimination.
18. Cell inclusions are chemical substances produced by cells. They are usually organic and may have recognizable shapes Examples are melanin, glycogen, lipids, and mucus.
19. Extracellular materials are all the substances that lie outside the cell membrane. They provide support and a medium for the diffusion of nutrients and wastes. Some, like hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulfate, are amorphous. Others, like collagenous, reticular, and elastic fibers, are fibrous.
20. Plant cells differ mainly from animal cells by the presence of chloroplasts and cell walls. Cell walls are mainly made from cellular secretions called cellulose, lignin, and pectin. During cell division plant cells form a cell plate rather than undergoing cytokinesis.

CELL FUNCTION (DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis)

1. Cell division is the process by which cells reproduce themselves. It consists of nuclear (karyokinesis) division and cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis). This type of division which results in two identical (diploid) cells is collectively called mitosis. Cell division which results in cells which are haploid (that is having ½ the normal chromosome number) is called meiosis. Meiosis requires two actual cell divisions. During the first anaphase of meiosis the paired homologus chromosomes are separated. During the second anaphase chromatids are separated. The sole purpose of meiosis is the creation of gametes (sex cells - Spermatazoa and ova).
   
2. A cell carrying on every life process except division is said to be in interphase or metabolic interphase. During this time prior to karyokinesis and cytokinesis, the DNA molecules, or chromosomes, replicate themselves so the same chromosomal complement can be passed on to future generations of cells. In interphase the DNA material is called chromatin. DNA is assisted in “unzipping” for replication by means of a group of enzymes collectively referred to as DNA Polymerase. DNA assembles RNA (transcription) with assistance of a group of enzymes collectively referred to as RNA Polymerase.
   
3. The nitrogen base pairs of DNA are held together by weak chemical bonds called hydrogen bonds. A nitrogen base plus a sugar and a phosphate is called a nucleotide. The sugar found in the DNA molecule is called deoxyribose sugar. The sugar found in the RNA molecule is called ribose sugar. It is from the types sugars that the respective molecules are named.
   
4. Mitosis is the distribution of two sets of chromosomes into separate and equal nuclei following their replication. It consists of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During prophase the nuclear membrane dissolves freeing up the chromosomes. Each chromosome consists mainly of two tightly coiled strands of DNA called chromatids. These are joined at some place along their length by a centromere. Each is attached to a spindle fiber.
   
5. Genes are sequences of nitrogen bases along each DNA molecule. For each chromsome there is a single spindle fiber attached at the centromere. The mitotic spindle is formed between two structures called centrioles. Spindle fibers are made from structures called microtubules which are made of protein (tubulin). Human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes in normal body cells. A mature chromosome is made up of two strands of DNA along with associated support proteins. Paired genes which occur on paired chromosomes are called alleles. Gametes (spermatozoa and ova) in human beings have 1/2 the normal number of chromsomes. We call this condition haploid. Cells with the normal number of chromosomes are referred to as being diploid.
   
6. During metaphase the chromosomes line up along the center or equator of the cell. During anaphase each chromosome is pulled apart separating the chromatids with each moving to the opposite ends of the cell. During telophase cytokinesis which begins in late anaphase terminates. A cleavage furrow forms at the cell's equator and progresses inward, cutting through the cell to form two separate portions of cytoplasm. A new nuclear membrane forms in each new cell thus creating two cells in the place of the original. These are sometimes called daughter cells. These new cells immediately move into the interphase condition. Plant cells differ from animal cells in telophase by the formation of a cell wall section called the cell plate. This occurs instead of cytokinesis because of the presence of the plant cell wall.
   
7. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid which carries genetic instructions for the biological development of all cellular forms of life and many viruses. It is sometimes referred to as the master molecule of heredity as it is inherited and used to perpetuate traits. Prior to the process of reproduction, it is replicated and distributed to the gametes (spermatozoa and ova) then by their union passed on to offspring.
   
8. In bacteria and blue green algae (prokaryotic organisms), DNA is distributed more or less throughout the cell. In the complex (eukaryotic) cells of plants, animals and in other multi-celled organisms, most of the DNA is found in the chromosomes, which are located in the cell nucleus. Chloroplasts and mitochondria (cellular endosymbionts) also carry DNA, as do many viruses.
   
9. Genes are the organism's blueprint. A strand of DNA contains genes, areas that regulate genes, and areas that either have no function, or a function which we currently don’t understand. Structurally DNA is organized as two complementary strands with weak hydrogen bonds between them that can be "unzipped" like a zipper. The DNA code is made up of four interchangeable nitrogen bases. They are: Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, and Cytosine. Each base links with only one other base: A+T, T+A, C+G and G+C. The order of the bases along the length of the DNA is what it's all about, the sequence itself is the prescription for genes.
   
10. DNA replication prior to cell division is performed by splitting (unzipping) the double strand down the middle and recreating the "other half" of each new single strand by attracting complimentary nucleotides from the nuclear cytoplasm. Since each of the four nitrogen bases can only combine with one other base, the base on the old strand dictates which base will be on the new strand. This way, each split half of the strand plus the bases it attracts end up as a complete replica of the original. On occasions mutations may occur. Mutations are simply chemical imperfections in this process: a base is accidentally skipped, inserted, or incorrectly copied, or the chain is trimmed, or added to. Mutations are either spontaneous or induced. A DNA strand is really a pair of molecules, which entwine to form a double helix. Thus each helix is a chemically linked chain of nucleotides, each of which consists of a sugar, a phosphate and one of the four kinds of nitrogen bases The diversity of the bases means that there are four kinds of nucleotides, which are commonly referred to by the identity of their bases. These are adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G) nucleotides. Each base forms hydrogen bonds readily to only one other -- A to T and C to G.
    
11. Within a gene, the sequence of nucleotides along a DNA strand defines the production of a protein, which a cell manufactures using the information of the sequence. When DNA copies itself prior to cell division the copying process is known as Replication. When DNA is used as a pattern during the manufacture of RNA the process is known as Transcription. Finally when RNA manufactures protein the process is known as Translation. It should be noted here that RNA differs from DNA in two significant ways. First in RNA the nitrogen base Thymine is replaced by Uracil, and second the sugar is different. In DNA the sugar is deoxyribose sugar. In RNA the sugar is ribose sugar. The genetic code is made up of three letter words formed from a sequence of three nucleotides for example: ACU, CAG, or UUU. These codons are located on each strand of messenger RNA. Transfer RNA also bear base sequences called anticodons. Transfer RNA molecules each attracts a particular amino acid. Since there are 64 possible codons, most amino acids have more than one possible codon. There are also three 'stop' or 'nonsense' codons signifying the end of the coding region.
    
12. DNA replication or DNA synthesis is the process of copying the double-stranded DNA prior to cell division. The two resulting double strands are generally almost perfectly identical, but occasionally errors in replication can result in a less than perfect copy called a mutation. Each of them consists of one original and one newly synthesized strand. This is called semiconservative replication. The process of replication consists of three steps: initiation, replication and termination. The hydrogen bonds between the strands of the double helix are weak enough that they can be easily separated by enzymes. Enzymes known as helicases unwind the strands to facilitate the advance of sequence-reading enzymes such as DNA polymerase. The unwinding requires that helicases chemically cleave the phosphate backbone of one of the strands so that it can swivel around the other
    
13. In the 19th century, biochemists initially isolated DNA and RNA (mixed together) from cell nuclei. They realized only later that nucleotides were of two types--one containing ribose and the other deoxyribose. It was this subsequent discovery that led to the identification and naming of DNA as a substance distinct from RNA. Friedrich Miescher (1844-1895) discovered a substance he called "nuclein" in 1869. Later, he isolated a pure sample of the material now known as DNA from the sperm of salmon, and in 1889 his pupil, Richard Altmann, named it "nucleic acid". This substance was found to exist only in the chromosomes. In 1944, the renowned physicist, Erwin Schrödinger, published a brief book entitled What is Life? , where he maintained that chromosomes contained what he called the "hereditary code-script" of life. Francis Crick, James D. Watson, Maurice Wilkins, Rosalind Franklin, Seymour Benzer , et al., took up the physicist's challenge to work out the structure of the chromosomes and the question of how the segments of the chromosomes that were conceived to relate to specific traits could possibly do their jobs. In the 1950s, only a few groups made it their goal to determine the structure of DNA. These included an American group led by Linus Pauling, and two groups in Britain. A key inspiration in the work of all of these teams was the discovery in 1948 by Pauling that many proteins included helical (see alpha helix) shapes. Watson and Crick had begun to think about double helical arrangements which they modeled. Watson and Crick's model attracted great interest immediately upon its presentation. Arriving at their conclusion on February 21, 1953, Watson and Crick made their first announcement on February 28. Their paper 'A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid' was published on April 25. In an influential presentation in 1957, Crick laid out the "Central Dogma ", which foretold the relationship between DNA, RNA, and proteins. Work by Crick and coworkers deciphered the genetic code not long afterward. These findings represent the birth of molecular biology. Watson, Crick, and Wilkins were awarded the 1962 Nobel Prize for Medicine for discovering the molecular structure of DNA
    
14. Cells of the human body regularly manufacture over 100,000 different proteins such as - eye, hair and skin color, hormones, structural proteins, etc. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is referred to as nucleic acid. One strand of DNA has a backbone consisting of a polymer of the simple sugar deoxyribose bonded to a phosphate. The backbone of a strand of DNA resembles this: sugar-phosphate-sugar-phosphate-sugar- etc.. Each sugar molecule in the strand also binds to one of four different nucleotide bases. These bases: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C) and Thymine (T), are the beginnings of a molecular alphabet. Each sugar molecule in the DNA strand will bind to one nucleotide base. Each strand of DNA contains millions or even billions (in the case of human DNA) of nucleotide bases. These bases are arranged in a specific order according to our genetic ancestry. The order of these base units makes up the code for the specific characteristics in the body a whole. As there are 26 letters in the English alphabet arranged in various sequences to produce words, our body's DNA uses 4 letters (the 4 nucleotide bases) to code for millions of different physical characteristics.
    
15. Each molecule of DNA is actually made up of 2 strands of DNA cross-linked together. Each nucleotide base in the DNA strand will cross-link (via hydrogen bonds) with a nucleotide base in a second strand of DNA forming a structure that resembles a ladder. These bases cross-link in a very specific order: A will only link with T (and vice-versa), and C will only link with G (and vice-versa). In 1953, James Watson, Francis Crick and Rosalind Franklin discovered that the structure of DNA is actually a double helix. In other words, the DNA ladder described above coils around itself somewhat like a doubled spring. A strand of DNA may be millions, or billions, of base-pairs long A Gene is a relatively small segment of DNA that codes for the synthesis of a specific protein. Minimum size is three base pairs called a triplet. This protein then will play a structural or functional role in the body. A chromosome is a larger collection of DNA that contains many genes and the support proteins needed to control these genes.
    
16. Protein synthesis is a 2 part process that involves a second type of nucleic acid along with DNA. This second type of nucleic acid is RNA, ribonucleic acid. RNA differs from DNA in two respects. First, the sugar units in RNA are ribose as compared to DNA's deoxyribose. Because of this difference, RNA does not bind to the nucleotide base Thymine, instead, RNA contains the nucleotide base Uracil (U) in place of T (RNA also contains the other three bases: A, C and G). Transcription: In the first step of protein synthesis, the 2 DNA strands in a gene that codes for a protein unzip from each other. Similar to the way DNA replicates itself, a single strand of messenger RNA (mRNA) is then made by pairing up mRNA bases with the exposed DNA nucleotide bases. Remember that mRNA does not contain the base Thymine, so U is paired with each of DNA's A bases.
    
17. Translation: After the mRNA is manufactured, it leaves the cell nucleus and travels to a cellular organelle called the ribosome (we will learn about the cell, nucleus and ribosome in the next lesson). In the ribosome, the mRNA code is translated into a transfer RNA (tRNA) code which, in turn, is transfered into a protein sequence. In this process, each set of 3 mRNA bases (the mRNA base triplet is called a codon) will pair with a complimentary tRNA base triplet (called an anticodon). Each tRNA is specific to an amino acid, as tRNA's are added to the sequence, amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds, eventually forming a protein that is later released by the tRNA. Proteins normally consist of hundreds or thousands of amino acids.Synthesis of a protein requires the participation of a ribosome, ATP, mRNA, tRNA, and a releasing factor.
    
18. Mutations are caused by various mutagenic agents (chemicals, x-rays, U.V. light, etc.). Most but not all are deleterious because the amino acid sequences of proteins and nucleotide sequences of DNA have been determined during millenia of natural selection. Mutations also result in changes in the order of nucleotides in genes. A point mutation is the substitution of one nucleotide for another. In a frameshift mutation , a nucleotide is added or deleted. A specific example concerns causation of a type of skin cancer in humans. Ultraviolet light causes a mutation in human skin cells (two adjacent cytosines are converted into thymines). The result is squamous-cell carcinoma.

Adenosine Triphosphate - ATP

1. All living things, plants and animals, require a continual supply of energy in order to function. The energy is used for all the processes which keep the organism alive. Some of these processes occur continually, such as the metabolism of foods, the synthesis of large, biologically important molecules, e.g. proteins and DNA, and the transport of molecules and ions throughout the organism. Other processes occur only at certain times, such as muscle contraction and othercellular movements. Animals obtain their energy by oxidation of foods, plants do so by trapping the sunlight using chlorophyll. However, before the energy can be used, it is first transformed into a form which the organism can handle easily. This special carrier of energy is the molecule adenosine triphosphate, or ATP. ATP is a nucleotide molecule that performs many essential roles in the cell. It is the major energy currency of the cell, providing the energy for most of the energy-consuming activities of the cell. When the third phosphate group of ATP is removed by hydrolysis, a substantial amount of free energy is released. For this reason, this bond is known as a "high-energy" bond . The bond between the first and second phosphates is also "high-energy".
2. The ATP molecule is composed of three components. At the center is a sugar molecule, ribose. Attached to one side of this is a base called adenine. The other side of the sugar is attached to a string of three phosphate groups. These phosphates are the key to the activity of ATP. Each of the phosphates are attached by what are termed high energy chemical bonds.
3. ATP works by losing the endmost phosphate group when instructed to do so by an enzyme. This reaction releases a lot of energy, which the organism can then use to build proteins, contact muscles, etc. The reaction product is adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and the phosphate group
   either ends up as orthophosphate (HPO4) or attached to another molecule (e.g. an alcohol). Even more energy can be extracted by removing a second phosphate group to produce adenosine monophosphate (AMP).
4. When the organism is resting and energy is not immediately needed, the reverse reaction takes place and the phosphate group is reattached to the molecule using energy obtained from food or sunlight. Thus the ATP molecule acts as a chemical 'battery', storing energy when it is not needed, but able to release it instantly when the organism requires it.
5. .Synthesis of ATP - requires energy: 7.3 kcal/mole, occurs in the cytosol by glycolysis, occurs in mitochondria by cellular respiration, occurs in chloroplasts during photosynthesis
6. Glucose Catabolism - In most animal cells the major direct incoming source of energy is simple sugar molecules such as glucose. The break down of glucose or oxidation is also called cellular respiration. The complete oxidation of glucose to C02 and H20 involves three complex chemical pathways: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.
7. Glycolysis - Glycolysis refers to the breakdown of glucose into two molecules of pyruvic acid. When oxygen is in short supply, pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid; under aerobic conditions, pyruvic acid enters the Krebs cycle. As a result of glycolysis, there is a net production of 2 molecules of ATP
8. Krebs Cycle - Pyruvic acid is prepared for entrance into the Krebs cycle by conversion to a two-carbon compound (acetyl group) followed by the addition of coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A. The Krebs cycle involves decarboxylations and oxidations and reductions of various organic acids. Each molecule of pyruvic acid that enters the Krebs cycle produces 3 molecules of C02, 4 molecules of NADH2, 1 molecule of FADH2, and I molecule of GTP. The energy originally in glucose and then pyruvic acid is primarily in the reduced coenzymes NADH2 and FADH2.
9. Electron Transport Chain - The electron transport chain is a series of oxidation-reduction reactions in which the energy in NADH2 and FADH2 is liberated and transferred to ATP for storage. The carrier molecules involved include FAD, coenzyme Q, and cytochromes. The electron transport chain yields 32 molecules of ATP and H20. 10. Consumption of ATP - ATP powers most of the energy-consuming activities of cells, such as: Most anabolic reactions. Examples: joining transfer RNAs to amino acids for assembly into proteins, synthesis of nucleoside triphosphates for assembly into DNA and RNA, synthesis of polysaccharides, synthesis of fats, active transport of molecules and ions, nerve impulses, maintenance of cell volume by osmosis, adding phosphate groups (phosphorylation) to many different proteins, e.g., to alter their activity in cell signaling, muscle contraction, beating of cilia and flagella (including sperm), and bioluminescence.
   

Principles of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process of converting light energy to chemical energy and storing it in the bonds of sugar. This process occurs in plants and some algae. Plants need only light energy, CO2, and H2O to make sugar. The process of photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts,
specifically using chlorophyll, the green pigment found in most leaves.

Photosynthesis takes place primarily in plant leaves, and little to none occurs in stems, or other plant parts. The parts of a typical leaf include the upper and lower epidermis, the mesophyll, the vascular bundles (veins), and the stomata . The upper and lower epidermal cells do not have
chloroplasts. They serve primarily as protection for the rest of the leaf. The stomata are cell bordered pores which occur primarily in the lower epidermis and are for air exchange: they let CO2 in and O2 out. The vascular bundles or veins in a leaf are part of the plant's transportation
system, moving water and nutrients around the plant as needed. The mesophyll cells contain chloroplasts in which photosynthesis occurs.

The parts of a chloroplast include the outer and inner membranes, intermembrane space, stroma, and thylakoids stacked in grana which have the appearance of stacked coins. The chlorophyll is built into the membranes of the thylakoids.

Chlorophyll looks green because it absorbs red and blue light, making these colors unavailable to be seen by our eyes. It is the green light which is not absorbed and reflected back which makes chlorophyll appear green. It is the energy from the red and blue light that are absorbed that is and thus able to be used in the process of photosynthesis. The green light is not absorbed by the plant, and cannot be used to do photosynthesis.

The overall chemical reaction involved in photosynthesis is: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O (In the presence of light and chlorophyll) = C6H12O6 + 6 O2.

The Two Stages of Photosynthesis:

The light reaction (light dependent) stage occurs in the thylakoid membrane and converts light energy to chemical energy. Chlorophyll and several other pigments such as beta-carotene are organized in clusters in the thylakoid membrane and are involved in the light reaction. Each of these differently-colored pigments can absorb a slightly different color of light and pass its energy to the central chlorphyll molecule to do photosynthesis. The central part of the chemical structure of a chlorophyll molecule is called a porphyrin ring, which consists of several fused rings of carbon and nitrogen with a magnesium ion in the center. It is the magnesium that accounts for the green color.

The energy harvested during the light reaction is stored by forming a chemical molecule called ATP (adenosine triphosphate), a compound used by cells for energy storage. This chemical is made of the nucleotide adenine bonded to a ribose sugar, and that is bonded to three phosphate groups. This molecule is very similar to the building blocks for DNA and RNA.

The dark reaction (light independent stage) takes place in the stroma within the chloroplast, and converts CO2 into sugar. This reaction doesn't directly require light in order to occur, but it does need the products of the light reaction (ATP and another chemical called NADPH). The dark reaction involves a cycle called the Calvin cycle in which CO2 and energy from ATP are used in the formation of sugar. The first product of photosynthesis is a three-carbon compound called glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Almost immediately, two of these join to form a glucose (simple sugar) molecule.

Most plants introduce CO2 directly into the Calvin cycle and the first stable organic compound formed is the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Since that molecule contains three carbon atoms, these plants are called C3 plants. For all plants, hot summer weather increases the amount of
water that evaporates from the plant. Plants lessen the amount of water that evaporates by keeping their stomata closed during hot, dry weather. Unfortunately, this means that once the CO2 in their leaves reaches a low level, they must stop doing photosynthesis. Even if there is a tiny bit of CO2 left, the enzymes used to grab it and put it into the Calvin cycle just don't have enough CO2 to use. Typically the grass in our yards just turns brown and goes dormant. Some plants like crabgrass, corn, and sugar cane have a special modification to conserve water. These plants capture CO2 in a different way: they do an extra step first, before doing the Calvin cycle. These plants have a special enzyme that can work better, even at very low CO2 levels, to grab CO2 and turn it first into oxaloacetate, which contains four carbons. Thus, these plants are called C4 plants. The CO2 is then released from the oxaloacetate and put into the Calvin cycle. This is why crabgrass can stay green and keep growing when all the rest of your grass is dried up and brown.

There is yet another strategy to cope with very hot, dry, desert weather and conserve water. Some plants (for example, cacti and pineapple) that live in extremely hot, dry areas like deserts, can only safely open their stomata at night when the weather is cool. Thus, there is no chance for them to get the CO2 needed for the dark reaction during the daytime. At night when they can open their stomata and take in CO2, these plants incorporate the CO2 into various organic compounds to store it. In the daytime, when the light reaction is occurring and ATP is available
(but the stomata must remain closed), they take the CO2 from these organic compounds and put it into the Calvin cycle. These plants are called CAM plants, which stands for crassulacean acid metabolism after the plant family, Crassulaceae (which includes the garden plant Sedum) where
this process was first discovered.

Evolution

Principles of Evolution

1. To understand the origins of existing life forms it is necessary to understand some of the basic principles of evolution. Charles Darwin proposed the idea of evolution in his book 'On The Origin Of Species' in 1859. He called evolution 'descent with modification'. It is the process by which all life on earth has diversified from bacterial mats that existed over 3.6 billion years (3,600,000,000,000 years) ago. The process of evolution has taken a long time. Throughout the time line the process has not proceeded at a constant rate. Rather it is a process puncuated by rapid bursts of change interspaced between realtively long periods during which little or no change was taking place. The exact causes and nature of these puncuated bursts are not well understood.
   .
2. For a long time it was mistakenly thought that evolution was a simple linear progression, with humankind at the top of the ladder. This old view was replaced long ago as new evidence came to light. We now understand that evolution proceeds in a kind of branching pattern, with species on one branch giving rise to other branches and so on.
3. Evolution proceeds as changes (mutations) occur in the genetic code of an organism. These mutations are 'tested' by the environment in which the organism exists. Many (most) of the changes will be harmful to the organism, and it will die before the harmful genes are passed on to its offspring. Occasionally, however, a gene combination will arise the actually improves the adaptation of the organism to its' particular environment and these genes are more likely to be passed on. By this process, called 'natural selection', all life has branched. The process of natural selection is the means by which the great diversity of dinosaurs was able to evolve.
4. To reconstruct the evolutionary history of a related group of animals, such as the dinosaurs, it is necessary to look at the detailed shape of the bones. Not all dinosaurs are completely different. Some share certain similarities in their bone structure. By finding out what dinosaurs share these similarities, or 'characters', it is possible to produce an evolutionary tree, or phylogeny, showing the relationships of the animals to their ancestors.
5. The modern theory of evolution explains the diversity of life from the perspective of science. It provides a scientific explanation of how the multitude of species was created. Advances in science, especially genetics, have strengthened this view of life in part by explaining the basis of variation and inheritance. As you will see, variation and inheritance are both very important to the theory. All aspects of modern biology are affected by the theory of evolution by means of natural selection. It has been said that 'nothing makes sense in biology except in light of the theory of evolution.' Note the often used phrase, "The Darwinian Revolution" a scientific revolution that has changed the focus of biology.
6. Major Basic Theories of Evolution
   1. The Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics. (1809) by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. Modifications acquired during one's lifetime are inherited by the next generation, ex. giraffes acquired a long neck slowly over time as each generation of giraffe stretched its neck slightly longer in trying to reach leaves high in trees. At fist glance this theory is deceptively close to Darwin's theory (both include the concept that evolution produces life forms adapted to their environments) but the inheritance of acquired characteristics implies that the organism itself can control the direction of change. Unfortunately, there have been no discoveries of any such mechanism of change.
   2. The Theory of Evolution by means of Natural Selection - The founders: Charles Darwin (1809-1882) an English Scientist, At the age of 22 he sailed on the HMS as ship's naturalist for a 5 year voyage 1831-1836. Alfred Wallace (1823-1913) an English Naturalist who spent the years 1848-1852 on the Amazon River and the years 1854-1861 in Indonesia collecting and studying insects. Both men were excellent observers and prolific collectors and both worked as taxonomists. In1858 - Wallace sends Darwin a letter, an essay in which he (Wallace) clearly communicates evolution by means of natural selection. In1859 Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection.
   3. Seven Influential Factors for both Wallace and Darwin:
   1. Geology the study of the earth's structure, origin, and history. The book, Principles of Geology by Charles Lyell (1797-1875), includes the "theory of uniformity" or "uniformitarianism" - Geological processes have been uniform through time. Geological changes of the past were caused by same, observable processes of today. The process of change has been uniform through time. Canyons and thick layers of sedimentary rock are the profound results of accumulated gradual change over vast stretches of time (gradualism). The significance to biology is this, slight changes over a long time have large-scale impact and one can look at the present to see the processes of the past.
      Three concepts from geology are important in shaping the theory of evolution by means of natural selection:
      1. the earth must be very old [4.6 billion years]
      2. one can look at the present to see processes of the past
      3. slight changes over a long time have large-scale impact
   2. Fossils - extinct forms similar yet distinct from extant forms. Perhaps a history of change (evolution) connects the living with the extinct.
   3. Island Life. Isolated island populations differ slightly from nearby mainland populations. e.g. Galapagos Islands (600 mi. off W coast of S.A) the birds, lizards, huge tortoises, similar to 'nearby' mainland species yet slightly different. Therefore there must have been Descent with modification (the island life evolved from mainland ancestors).
   4. Overproduction of individuals - Thomas Malthus (British Economist) in his "Essay on the Principle of Populations" (1798) attempts to explain that much of human suffering, hunger, sickness, homelessness, and war are due to competition between an ever increasing number of individuals or groups of individuals for limited resources. The number of individuals (population size) tends to increase exponentially. This exponential capacity can't be sustained (if it were, earth would be covered over many times with individual life forms). Eventually, more individuals are born than can live to reproduce, leading to a struggle for existence. Darwin and Wallace saw the concept relative to all species not just humans. Only some individuals live to reproduce, many (in fact, most) will die before reaching reproductive age. What determines, in nature [not human society] who lives and who dies? An answer lies in part in variations among individuals. Social Darwinism is a distortion of the Theory of Evolution in the Darwinian sense, Social Darwinism was used by Hitler to justify the extirpation of Jews and his quest to destroy other countries; Antievolutionists use Social Darwinism as an attack on the Theory of Evolution. Social Darwinism is the erroneous application of "survival of the fittest" to human societies.
   5. Individuals within a species vary extensively. How does one know variations exist? Taxonomy! A taxonomist observes and describes the variation within a species. You don't have to be a taxonomist to know that individual people vary. People vary not only in morphological traits such as hair texture and body shape but also in physiological traits as seen in the susceptibility of American Indians to European diseases [measles, mumps]. A knowledge of the variation in species of wild animal be they bird, beetle, or barracuda, requires the careful and detailed observation of many specimens. Only a scrutinizing taxonomist, whether professional or amateur, sees the variation between individuals of wild species.
   6. Many of the variations are inheritable and some variations may impart greater reproductive success, as in artificial selection below.
   7. Artificial Selection "selective breeding by humans of another species". Variation among crops & livestock may be favored (selected) or disfavored (selected against), or neutral, i.e., neither favored nor disfavored, by man's control over which individuals are allowed to reproduce. Man selects the best (according to his taste) and breeds these for future generations

CHARLES DARWIN AND THE PRINCIPLE OF EVOLUTION

Darwin showed little interest in his early education at Shrewsbury School and in medical studies at Edinburgh University (1825-27). He turned away from becoming a physician after witnessing several operations performed without anesthesia. At the same time he began to be interested in geology and natural history. He was finally sent to study for the holy orders for the Church of England at Christ Church College, Cambridge University (1828), but had no inclination for the ministry. Instead, he became more and more interested in natural history. After he received his degree in 1831, a Cambridge professor and friend, John Stevens Henslow, recommended him for an unpaid position as naturalist on a scientific expedition. Darwin embarked on a 5-year voyage on the H.M.S. Beagle, a turning point in his life. The Beagle set sail on Dec. 27, 1831, to study the Pacific coast of South American and some Pacific islands as well as to set up navigational stations in the area. Darwin's duties were to study the geology and biology of these areas.

Darwin's biological findings gave him a lasting place in history. The Galapagos Islands were probably the scene of Darwin's most important and best-known research. On these islands, Darwin found an array of animal life and found that related but different species lived on different islands even though all the islands were very similar in geological, climatic, and other physical conditions. He found an array of ground finches with beaks ranging from large and powerful to small or fine. He correlated these differences not with physical conditions on the islands but with the birds' feeding habits. Those with powerful beaks ate large seeds; those with smaller beaks ate small seeds; those with fine beaks primarily fed on insects. He stated that each finch was particularly suited to the food that was available in its environment--an example of what later became known as adaptation.

Along the Pacific coast of South America, Darwin observed that closely related species often lived in adjacent geographic areas and that species found on isolated oceanic islands often resembled species found on the nearest continent. Established biological thinking held that all species were unchanging and specially created; however, Darwin found that similar species were always present in adjacent geographic areas. When he found, at a given location, fossils of extinct species that were similar to living species, he began to question why similar species existed in successive geologic time periods.

Darwin collected many geologic and biologic specimens, studied many fossils, and made observations of the form, numbers, diversity, and living habits of different forms of life. From his meticulous research he arrived at the idea that species descend, with modifications, from other species, or that species evolve from other species.

Darwin waited for years after his return to England (1836) to present his conclusions. He reported on some of the data he had accumulated during his trip in the Journal of Researches (1839). He also wrote a brief summary of his ideas on evolution that became known to a few scientists, but for the most part Darwin turned to other work, including detailed study of barnacles.

In 1856, Darwin began to write his theory of evolution by natural selection, but before he had finished (1858), he received a paper from naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace outlining a theory similar to his own. Friends arranged for the two men to present a joint paper before the Linnaean Society of London in 1858. On Nov. 24, 1859, an abstract of Darwin's theory was published, The Origin of Species.

In this book, Darwin presented his idea that species evolve from more primitive species through the process of natural selection, which works in nature. In his account of how natural selection occurs, he pointed out that not all individuals of a species are exactly the same but, that individuals have variations and that some of these variations make their bearers better adapted to particular ecological conditions. He pointed out that most species produce more eggs and offspring than ever reach maturity. He theorized that well-adapted individuals of a species have more chance of surviving and producing young than the less adapted, and that over the passage of time the the ones that are less adapted are weeded out. The accumulation of adaptations to a particular ecological way of life leads--if there is a geographic split of the population--into the development of separate species, each adapted to its own particular ecological living space.

The effect of on the Origin of Species was immediate and widespread. The book upset many established patterns of thought, contradicted firmly held religious beliefs, and brought into focus the concept that humans are one species among many that had evolved from a more primitive one. Controversies and debates on the theory raged all over England, Europe, and the United States. Though the evidence Darwin presented was strong, some scientists aligned themselves with orthodox churchmen and others who opposed the theory. Other scientists enthusiastically embraced it.

Darwin continued to write and do research, expanding on ideas he had presented in On the Origin of Species. In The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871), Darwin provided evidence for human evolution from more primitive species and discussed the role of sexual selection in evolution.

GLOSSARY TERMS

1. Natural Selection - is the outcome of differences in survival and reproduction among individuals that vary in heritable traits.
2. Directional Selection - allele frequencies underlying a range of variation tend to shift in a consistent direction in response to directional change in the environment.
3. Stabilizing Selection - intermediate forms of a trait are favored, and alleles that specify extreme forms are eliminated from a population.
4. Disruptive Selection - forms at both ends of the range of variation are favored and intermediate forms are selected against.
5. Gene Flow is the physical movement of alleles into and out of a population, through immigration and emigration.
6. Genetic drift is a random change in allele frequencies over the generations, brought about by chance alone.
7. Bottleneck is a severe reduction in population size. As a result of this reduction allele frequencies will have been altered at random. An example of this would be the cheetah. There was a huge reduction in the cheetah population. Parents mated with their own offspring when no other options were available. As a result of this, they have the same alleles and are almost like clones.
8. Founder effect is when a population is isolated. They take with them the alleles that were in that group. This is based on chance, not natural section. An example of this would be the Amish. They maintain isolation by pre-mating behavior (lifestyle, behavior, religious beliefs).

TISSUES

Animal Tissues

1. A tissue is a group of similar cells and their intercellular substance specialized for a particular function. Depending on their function and structure, the various tissues of the body are classified into four principal types: epithelia], connective. muscular. and nervous.
   
2. Epithelium has many cells, little intracellular material, and no blood vessels (avascular). It is attached to connective tissue by a basement membrane. It can replace itself. The subtypes of epithelium include covering and lining epithelium and glandular epithelium. Layers are arranged as simple (one layer), stratified (several layers), and pseudostratifled (one layer that appears as several); cell shapes include squamous (flat), cuboidal (cubelike), columnar (rectangular), and transitional (variable). Glandular Epithelium - A gland is a single cell or a mass of epithelial cells adapted for secretion. Exocrine glands (sweat, oil, and digestive glands) secrete into ducts or directly onto a free surface. Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the blood.
   
3. Connective tissue is the most abundant body tissue. It has few cells, an extensive intercellular substance, and a rich blood supply (vascular), except for cartilage. It does not occur on free surfaces. The intercellular substance determines the tissue's qualities. Connective tissue protects, supports, and binds organs together. Connective tissue is classified into two principal types: embryonic and adult. Adult connective tissue is connective tissue that exists in the newborn and that does not change after birth. It is subdivided into several kinds: connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone tissue, and vascular tissue. Five examples of such tissues may be distinguished: Loose, Adipose, Dense, Elastic, and Reticular. Cartilage has a jellylike matrix containing collagenous and elastic fibers and chondrocytes. Hyaline cartilage is found in the embryonic skeleton, at the ends of bones, in the nose, and in respiratory structures. Fibrocartilage connects the pelvic bones and the vertebrae. It provides strength. Elastic cartilage maintains the shape of organs such as the larynx, auditory tubes, and external ear.
   
4. Muscle tissue performs one major function: contraction. Three main types of muscle tissue are: Skeletal (Striated), Cardiac, and Viscera; (Smooth). Muscle tissue either allows for the organism to move through the environment or provides for motion of materials within the organism.
   
5. Nervous tissue is specialized to conduct electrical impulses. The principle cell type is the neuron. Two general nerve cell types are recognized: Motor and Sensory. The nervous system is divided into two major functioning parts: Central and peripheral.

Plant Tissues

1. Tissues that give rise to growth in length are termed Primary Tissues. These tissues are often termed meristems: Apical and Root. Tissues that cause growth in diameter are termed Secondary Tissues: Cambium.

2. Examples of a few simple plant tissues are: Parenchyma - food storage, Collenchyma - support for young tissues, Sclerenchyma - support for mature tissues.

3. Complex tissues include: Vascular Tissues (Xylem and phloem). Xylem transports water and other
nutrients up from the roots into the stems and leaves. Phloem transports water and newly manufactured food down the plant to be stored in the roots, etc..

4. Dermal Tissues include the epidermis and associated structures.

SYSTEMS AND ORGANS
Cells make up tissues. Tissues make up organs. Organs make up systems. Systems make up the organism.
Animal Systems and Organs - Outlined with respect to the human organism

1. Integumentary System - One organ: Skin. Function - Protection, heat regulation, and vitamin synthesis.
2. Skeletal System - Organs @ 206 Bones. Two divisions: Axial and Appendicular. Axial Division - bones of the skull, vertebral column, rib cage and sternum. Appendicular Division - bones of the appendages (arms and legs, etc). Function - Support, protection, leverage, and mineral storage.
3. Muscular System - Organs @ 600 muscles. Three types of muscles: Skeletal (Striated), Cardiac, and Visceral (Smooth). Function - motion and heat generation.
4. Nervous System - Organs: Brain, Spinal Cord, Nerves, Sensory Organs. Two main divisions - Axial and Peripheral. Major cell type - neuron (motor and sensory). Function - Sensory reception, interpretation, and initiation of motion.
5. Respiratory System - Organs: Mouth, Nose, Trachea, Larynx, Bronchi, Lungs, plus accessory structures. Function - Breathing and respiration.
6. Cardiovascular System - Organs: Heart, Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins. Function - Blood production, circulation of blood, transport of respiratory gasses, nutrients, and metabolic wastes.
7. Lymphatic System - Organs: Lymph Nodes, and Lymphatic Vessels. Function - Circulation and purification of lymphatic fluid through phagocytosis.
8. Digestive System - Organs: Mouth, Teeth, Esophagus, Stomach, Small Intestine, Large Intestine, Rectum, plus accessory organs. Function - Acquisition and processing of food materials and elimination of solid wastes.
9. Excretory System - Organs: Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary Bladder, Urethra. Function - Regulation of volume and concentration of blood and elimination of liquid nitrogenous wastes.
10. Endocrine System - Organs: Pituitary, Thyroid, Parathyroids, Thymus, Adrenals, Pancreas, Ovaries, Testes. Function - Hormone production and regulation of physiological systems function.
11. Reproductive System - Organs: Testes and Ovaries plus accessory structures. Function - Development and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics and reproduction.

Plant Systems and Organs

Plants do not have organs organized into systems. Plant organs are: Roots, Stems, Leaves, Flowers, Fruits, and Seeds. Functions: Nutrient absorption and transport, photosynthesis, transport of synthesized foods, food storage, attraction of pollinators, and reproduction.

Organs and systems vary greatly between the groups of various living organisms but hold in common the need for motion, nutrient acquisition, protection, and reproduction.

1. European Bramble grows three inches a day.
2. Fungi use the wind for spore dispersal. Examples are: Puff Balls and Earth Stars.
3. Liana Vines in Borneo have delta shaped winged seeds. Seeds drift in the air for hundreds of feet. Charles Northrop used this seed in the development of the Flying Wings which was the basis for the modern Stealth Fighter.
4. Winged Sycamore seeds spin like the rotors of helicopters in flight.
5. Tristar plant winged seeds use the same principle but have six blades.
6. Water is also used in seed dispersal. A classic example is the Sea Bean. This plant has the largest seed pods in the world. Plants grow near water and the seed pods fall off in the water and wash to the sea where the ocean currents carry them for thousands of miles. A seed may start in Africa and wind up on the other side of the earth where it germinates.
7. Animals carry seed and disperse them through their digestive tracts. Examples are: Cassowaries have blue wattles and blue seeds attract them.
8. Seeds are dispersed through clinging. Examples are: Seed cases of the Grapple Plant hooking to the feet of ostriches and Cocklebur seed hooking into the fur of mammals.
9. Fruit smells attract seed carriers. Examples are: Durian Fruit attracting Orangutans in Borneo. The fruit and seeds are eaten and the seeds dispersed in the dung.
10. The Trulia Tree of Nepal attracts the Indian Rhinoceros which eats the fruit in the deep forest and then moves on into clearings to defecate. Seeds are thus dispersed far from the parent trees.
11. African Elephants do the same with Acacia Tree fruit and seeds.
12. Brazil Nut Trees depend upon the Agouti for the same purpose. Only Agoutis have teeth strong enough to open the seed pods.
13. Arolla Pines in Europe depend on the Alpine Nut Cracker bird to deposit their seeds.
14. Ivy-Leaved Toad Flax plants its own seeds by drilling them in because of moisture content of the air.
15. South African Protea Flowers produce seed and have to wait for fire to open the seed pods to scatter the seeds.
16. 2,000 year old Magnolia seeds have been excavated in Ascada, Japan. They still germinate.

1. Cheese Plant seedlings in the Amazon Basin grow along the ground after germinating until they contact a tree and then the grow up the tree.
2. . Photosynthesis has both light and dark phases. The layers of the forest canopy regulate the amount of sunlight reaching the ground.
3. Roots, rootlets, and root hairs absorb water. 90% of water entering a plant through the roots is lost through leaf pores called stomata thorough the process of guttation.
4. Plant vascular tissue transports fluids. Xylem transports water and dissolved materials up the plant. Phloem transports water and food materials down the plant.
5. Leaves have many dangers in life. Examples are: too much or too little water, Herbivores, and disease causing organisms.
6. Plant cell walls are made from cellulose, lignin, and pectin. These are nondigestible to animals. They have helpers living in their guts. Examples are: Protozoa as in termites, and Bacteria as in the human intestine.
7. Plants defend them selves in many ways. Examples are: African Acacia with spines. Giraffes ignore the spines or at least are not hurt by them.
8. Stinging Nettles have stinging hairs on the undersurface of their leaves and on their stems. These discourage potential herbivorous animals. False Nettles mimic the Stinging Nettles and because of resemblance are protected from attack.
9. Pebble Plants of Africa look like small pebbles and are thus overlooked.
10. Passion Flowers are poisonous but Heliconius Butterflies larvae feed upon the vine anyway. The Vines produce small structures that look like butterfly eggs. The presence of these discourage female butterflies from depositing more eggs on the plant.
11. Bracken Ferns of Europe produce cyanide which prevents herbivores from feeding upon them.
12. Sensitive Mimosa closes its leaves at touch.
13. Insectivorous plants feed on insects as nutritive supplements. Examples are: Venus Fly Trap, Trumpet Pitcher Plants, and Sundews. The largest pitcher plant in the world is the Pentes Rajah found on Mount Kinabalau in Borneo. 76 species of Pitcher plants are known and of these 30 are found in Borneo.
14. The Giant Arum of Borneo has the world’s largest leaves. Each mature leaf has about 34 square feet of surface area exposed to the sun.
15. Leaves fall in deciduous forest in the fall as a result of a process called abscission. This process exposes ordinarily
    hidden pigments such as: Carotenes, Anthocyanins, and Xanthophylls. These pigments give the trees their spectacular
    fall coloration.
16. Leaves vary with shape and function according to location and habitat.
17. Tree Rings tell the age of trees. One ring is added each growing season. Bristle Cone Pine in the White Mountains of eastern California are the oldest living things on earth. The oldest known specimen is 4,000 plus years old. Giant Sequoias reach and age of 3,000 and can be over 300 feet tall.

1. Pollen grains are unique for each species of flowering plant.
2. Grass grows 20 feet tall in Nepal. Grasses are highly successful plants.
3. Male and female structures are generally both found in the same flower. Pollen grains are male. Ovaries are female.
4. Pollination in many instances is accomplishes through unique relationships with animals.
5. Proteas in Africa have red flowers to attract birds. Red flowers generally do not smell because birds can not smell.
6. One species of African Protea flowers at night to attract a night foraging species of Bush Mouse. It has flowers dull in color and low to the ground.
7. Durian Trees of Borneo are pollinated by night flying bats.
8. Giant Gecko Lizards of New Zealand pollinate the Bohuta Karna tree.
9. Black Lemurs of Madagascar pollinate the Traveler’s Palm. Male Lemurs are black and the females are brown.
10. Insects are the most common pollinators of flowering plants.
11. Carpenter Bees on the Cape of South Africa pollinate Gentian flowers by vibrating the pollen free.
12. Long Tongue Hover Flies pollinate South African Iris flowers. The flower is marked with white arrows to help the fly aim its very long tongue.
13. Red Orchids of South Africa use res flowers to attract Mountain Pride Butterflies to pollinate the flowers. Pollen is in special packets that attache to the butterfly called pollinia.
14. South American Orchids attract male bees who use the orchids oils as perfume to attract potential mates.
15. Tropical Fig Trees in Australia have their flowers located inside small green knobs. Female bees lay eggs on the flowers. Males and females emerge and mate. The females then leave the flowers carrying pollen with them to pollinate other flowers. The males never leave the enclosed flowers.
16. European Orchids have flowers that look like female wasps. These attract males which pollinate the flowers as they try to mate.
17. Western Australian Teneid wasps do the same.
18. Dead Horse Arum flowers occur in gull colonies in the Mediterranean. The flowers look and smell like a rotting corpse which attracts Blow Flies that pollinate them. The flies are trapped over night as pollen is released on them.
19. In Sumatra the worlds largest flower called the Titan Arum, Amorphophallus titanum, flowers only once in a thousand days. The flowers last for only 3 days during which they attract Sweat Bees to pollinate them. The flower is 9 feet tall and 3 feet across.

1. Storms are often critical for plant survival. 16 October, 1987 a hurricane hit the British Isles uprooting trees making way for other trees to grow. Seeds that had lain dormant for centuries had the chance to germinate.
2. First plants to grow in such an area in England are Fox Glove and Willow Herb. Willow Herb seeds are carried by the wind.
3. Young Birches are next followed by Oaks. Oaks finally overtake the Birches and shade them out becoming the dominant trees in the forest.
4. In spite of toxins developed in their leaves Oaks feed many species of insects such as: Weevils, Bush Crickets, Saw Flies, Yellow Tail Moths, Tortrix Moths, and Bagworm caterpillars.
5. Insects in turn provide food for birds roosting in the trees.
6. Oaks are deciduous losing their leaves in the winter. Before they can grow their leaves back in the spring Blue Bells grown on the forest floor.
7. In the spring the North American woods are rich with many species of flowers before the forest canopy grows back its leaves.
   Examples are: Trillium Lilies, Dutchman’s Breeches, Wild Geranium, Bell Worts, and Blue Phlox.
8. When the canopy reforms the spring flowers are gone due to the shade returning to the woods.
9. In the tropical forests it is summer year round.
10. In the tropics plants climb toward the sun using such structures as tendrils.
11. Rattans produce the longest stems of any plants. In southeast Asia their stems may be 560 feet long!
12. Tendrils have recurved spines
13. Seeds float on air currents . They can also be carried on monkey fur or the feathers of birds.
14. Bromalids collect water. Orchids collect water and nutrients by their aerial roots.
15. Strangler Figs have hanging roots that gradually encase the plant supporting them which they then crush to death. The host tree then rots away and the Strangler Fig then stands by its self.
16. Fungi feed off of dead plants some species forming webs to catch falling leaves. In temperate zones fungal threads (hyphae) invade the bodies of their victims.
17. Some soil fungi trap roundworms (Nematodes) in nooses and strangle them.
18. Fungi become visible only when they are ready to reproduce. Fir, Spruce, and Hemlock in the Pacific Northwest grow close together. Fallen trees provide an elevated open surface upon which seeds can sprout.
19. In the mountains in southern Australia near Melbourne Tree ferns grow. In these mountains Mountain Ash a species of Eucalyptus are dominant. The worlds tallest known tree was of this species, it was 300 plus feet tall. Seeds are dropped in the shade. Forest fires clear the way for the next generation. Ash from the fires serve as fertilizer. At the turn of the century a Mountain Ash was harvested that was 435 feet tall.
20. In western Australia fires cause Banksias flower seed pods to open and ethylene gas from the smoke triggers seed germination.
21. Grassland of eastern Africa are undamaged by fire or grazing animals. Roots remain in tact. Drought destroys plants and scavengers eat corpses and plants. Acacia start to grow and become the dominant trees. Elephants eat the Acacia trees and push them over clearing the land for the regrowth of grasses starting the cycle again.
22. Wheat and other cereal grains developed and cultivated by man. A symbiosis has developed. Who is exploiting whom?

1. The Great Barrier Reef of Australia is made up from coral. Corals are similar to plants in that they need light to live. During the day Coral use Algae symbionts to manufacture food for both. Giant Calms also use Algae in a symbiosis relationship.
2. Pilau Island in the South Pacific has a lake in which lives colonies of specialized Jellyfish that use algae in symbiosis rather than having stinging cells to hunt for food as do other Jellyfish.
3. African Acacia Trees use thorns to discourage herbivores. Many of their thorns are hollow and colonies of ants live in them. The plants rewards the ants with nectar to live there. The ants protect the tree leaves from herbivorous insects, etc..
4. The Ant Plant of New Guinea is hollow and ants colonies live on the inside. The ant droppings and rotting dead provide nutrients for the plan. It is an interesting symbiosis.
5. Conifers (Gymnosperms) have their roots associated with fungi. The fungi help the tree by increasing root surface area so they can absorb water and nutrients better. The trees manufacture food which is used by the fungi. There are about 1,000 species of fungi in such forest regions of the world. These fungi may produce fruiting bodies (reproductive structures) only once in a twenty years or more.
6. Orchids depend upon fungi to germinate their seeds. Orchid seed will not germinate if not covered by specific fungi.
7. Lichens are a combination of a fungus and algae. There are @ 13,000 known species. They grow very
   slowly sometimes only a few millimeters in hundreds of years.
8. In the Namib Desert of south Africa the ground is covered with orange lichens. Fog provides the only source of water for these lichens. Lichens produce osmic acid which dissolves rock.
9. The are about 1,000 species of Mistletoe. Of that number @ 75 occur in Australia. Mistletoe seed are spread by the Mistletoe Bird. The seeds are sticky and when they pass through the digestive tract of the bird it wipes on tree limbs sticking the seeds in place.
10. Dodder is a parasite on Nettle in Europe and America. It twines around the host plant and then attaches and drains nutrients from the nettle.
11. In Borneo Raffelesia is the world’s largest single flower. One bloom may be three feet across. It smells like rotting flesh and attracts Blow Flies as pollinators. The whole plant is a parasite of certain forest vines. The only evidence of the plant is when it flowers.

1. Near the Polar Caps life is hostile. On Elsmere Island (850 miles north of the Arctic Circle) for 6 months of the years its dark. To avoid the cold Algae live in the layers of the limestone. Lichens live on surface rock.
2. During the summer the glacier melt allows small clumps of Mustard and other flowers to bloom. Recumbent Willow lies on the ground to keep out of the wind. Musk Oxen graze on these. When one dies its body provides nutrients.
3. Arctic Poppy tracks the sun during the day to absorb the most radiant warmth possible.
4. On the high peaks of the European Alps similar conditions exist. Snow Bells flower in the snow in the spring. During the summer the meadows fill with a riot of color from wild flowers. Plants are shallow rooted. Most plants form small rounded humps to conserve heat.
5. There is a 3 degree drop in temperature for each 1,000 feet in altitude in the mountains.
6. Tasmanian Cushion Plants may be 12 feet across. In the mountains where they live the air temperature on the average is about one degree above freezing. The rounded cushions act a solar panels to collect and hold heat.
7. In the New Zealand the cushion plants have dense coverings of whitish hairy structures, and as a result they are often called“vegetable sheep.”
8. In the mountains of Kenya, Africa Giant Lobelia has a dense covering of long leaves covered by dense hairs to protect it from the cold. The Sun Bird is the major pollinator.
9. Tree Groundsels use dead leaves to insulate against the cold. Clouds move in fast in the mountains moving the area from a warm climate to winter -like in a period of just a few minutes.
10. Cabbage Groundsel closes at night to avoid the cold. During the night the ground heaves because of freezing making it impossible for plants to stay firmly rooted.
11. In the Namib Desert of souther Africa there are only 1 to 2 inches of rain annually if at all. The secret of survival is water storage. The Quiver Tree has branches covered with white powder to reflect the heat. The tree can self amputate if necessary for survival.
12. Conephytum looks like small rocks. Water turns it green.
13. Saguaro cactus of the American Southwest stores tons of water for survival. It can grow 50 feet high and bears its flowers at the top.
14. Cactus defend themselves by the use of spines. Spines are modified leaves. Thorns on the other hand are modified stems.
15. The Window Plant of Namibia looks like pebbles. It is transparent on top to admits light for photosynthesis.
16. Bulbs and Tubers store food. Mole Rats eat these. They also carry bulbs from place to place and then forget them. This gives the plants a survival edge.
17. Some seeds in Namibia stay in the soil for 20 years or more waiting for the rains to come. When it does rain the desert blossoms. The spectacle remains only for a few weeks and that it goes back to desert.
18. Mount Marima is a tipui (table mountain) in South America. It is 9,000 feet high and 5 miles long. It is the source of the highest waterfalls in the world. Rushing water washes away nutrients leaving the surface almost barren.
19. Marsh Pitcher plants, Sundews, and Bladderworts hunt insects as nutrient supplements.
20. Giant Water Lilies of the Amazon have leaves 6 feet across. The can support the weight of a child. Lilly Trotter birds walk on the leaves. The flowers are 12 inches across. They trap beetles over night as pollinators.
21. In Cypress Swamps in the southern USA Cypress trees use pneumatophores (aerial roots) to breathe.
22. Costal Mangrove trees survive in both fresh and salt water. Roots are covered twice by the tide. Long seed pods plant themselves as they fall from the trees.
23. Giant Brown Algae have hold fasts that anchor them to sea floor so that strong currents cant wash them away. They can be up to 300 feet long and grow as much as three feet per day. Sargasso Weed floats at the mid Atlantic Ocean. In the deep oceans the single celled algae dominate. Two thirds of the surface of the planet is covered with water.

1. Dr. Noel Vietmeyer of the National Academy of Sciences studies the genetic diversity of crop plants. He indicates that most of the USA supermarket produce is not native plants.
2. Dr. Irma Bennett studies the genetic diversity of wheat.
3. The United States seed bank is located at Fort Collins, Colorado. Seeds are cleaned bagged and stored in the cold. Stored seeds lose viability with time. Seed samples are routinely tested for vaibility. When grown through several generations they lose their genetic diversity.
4. Tepary beans from Arizona are being hybred to replace African beans being lost due to drought. Dr. Barbra Webster from the University of California studies this problem.
5. The world is losing the genetic diversity of crop plants. Drought in Ethiopia caused farmers to eat their seeds rather than store them. In Nazaret, Ethiopia seed biers purchasing seed grain to preserve wild types.
6. Centers of crop diversity are: Asia, the Mediterranean, northeast Africa, and central & south America. One of the best is Peru. Potatoes come from the Andes. When they were taken to Europe it took 200 years for them to be accepted as food.
7. In 1861 the potato was a staple of Europe’s poor. In Ireland in 1841 there was a potato blight. Famine followed and many people died. Migration followed. One million came to the USA including the Kennedy family.
8. In Peru there are thousands of kinds of potatoes so a blight would not cause the same kind of problem.
9. Dr. Carlos Ochoa developed hybred potatoes for use in Peru. This has caused the near extermination of wild types.
10. In southeast Asia there were thousands of varieties of rice. New varieties displace the old.
11. In the USA corn varieties of the past were lost in the same way. In the 1970's a corn blight struck and over 50% of the crop was lost!
12. Dr. Winston Brill of Agricetus transplants genes to improve genetic resistance, etc.
13. At Monsanto Dr. Howard Schniderman says that they have spent 150 million dollars developing disease and insect resistant plants.
14. Investors must regain their invested money to justify costs. Results of reaserch sold rather than given. Who owns the world’s genetic diversity?
15. Southern Ethiopia is the origin of the world’s coffee.
16. Kenowa, Inca Wheat, among other unknown and unused species are being investigated as sources of food.

1. The Amazon is the longest river on earth. The river is born in the Andes Mts of Peru. Originally it flowed from east to west but with the formation of the Andes it reversed direction flowing west to east. The drainage basin is as large as the contiguous United States.
2. Dr. Michael Goulding has been studying the region for over 16 years. He works in association with the Coboclo Indians. The Name references that they are of mixed heritage (Indian and European). The Indians are tenet farmers and fishermen.
3. The Amazon has the greatest diversity of fish species in the world. There are @ 2000 cataloged species with as many unknown to science. Dr. Goulding has discovered and cataloged 200 plus species himself.
4. Electric Eels generate 500 volts to stun prey. Piranha hunt in schools. There are about 20 species of these in the region. Some eat fruit, others are fin nippers, and others are flesh eaters. River Sting Rays are of pre- Andean Pacific ancestry. Pink River Dolphins use echo location to find prey and bursts of sound to stun the prey.
5. The Arawana Fish (Water Monkey) leaps from the water to catch insects and other prey. The species has eyes that allow it to see both above and under the surface of the water at the same time. Males brood eggs and young in their mouths.
6. White Bald Wakari Monkeys have a red face that is a general indicator of health. They are short tailed (uncommon in New World species) and feed in small groups of 4 or 5. They are small weighing about 10 pounds.
7. Howler Monkeys are the largest Amazon species. Their growls can be heard for a distance of 2 miles. They indicate their group territory in that way. They feed upon fruit and leaves.
8. Sloths are awake for about 12 hours a day during which the feed. They eat leaves and have a slow metabolism. Green algae grows in their fur.
9. There are over 900 species of birds in the Amazon. They are hard to study because they live in the canopy.
10. The Hoatzin is a rare primitive bird. The young have claws on their wings much like prehistoric species such as the Archaeopteryx. They fee upon the leaves of the Giant Arum plant and feed their young predigested leaves. They nest over water so the young can swim to safety if needed.
11. During the peak of the rainy season trees flower and set fruit so that fish can spread the seed. The Giant Tombake fish is a 30 pound species that is a major seed disburser.
12. At night Night Monkeys come out to feed. They the only nocturnal monkey species known. Toro Rats are also common.
13. As the water recedes river banks provide places for the 3 foot Giant Amazon Turtles to lay eggs. Fish school back to the river systems. The Giant Piriricu, the largest freshwater fish is now over hunted. It can grow to a length of 9 feet.
14. During the dry season Manioc Root is the major staple of the Coboclo Indians. It is exported to the United States as tapioca.
    
    

1. Belize is located on the Caribbean coast and is about the size of Massachusetts It includes environments from the Maya Mountains to the sea.
2. The Mayan rain god was Chock. The major mountain predator is the mountain lion.
3. Mountain stream harbor thousands of Black Fly larvae. They are filter feeders and develop totally underwater.
4. The Nine Banded Armadillo which means “Little Armored One” in Spanish are common species. They are omnivores feeding upon fallen fruit etc. They stay with mother for nine weeks and then are on their own. Mountain Lions often eat the young.
5. Sundews are common insect eating plants. They digest prey in about two hours and reset for the next victim.
6. There are four dry months before the rains. Water cuts out underground caverns forming stalagmites and stalactites. Fungus fly larvae drop ling sticky silk threads near the openings of caves to entrap insects for food.
7. The Jaguar is the largest carnivore in the lowland rain forests. They are careful hunters because they try to avoid injuries. Wounds heal slowly in the tropics and because of infection could prove fatal.
8. King Vultures are the largest carnivorous birds. They are mainly scavengers and have a seven foot wing spread.
9. Rufous Tailed Hummingbirds and Long Tailed Hermit Hummingbirds are common. The Rufous Tailed is very territorial. They feed upon nectar from flowers. Flower mites ride from flower to flower in the nostrils of the hummingbirds.
10. Large Owl Butterflies fly at dusk and lay eggs on Heliconia and Banana plants. The Margay is a small hunting cat of the region. Tarantulas hunt at night and kill and digest their prey with their venom.
11. Fishing Bats hunt at night along the rivers. They have claws that allow them to catch fish right out of the
    water. They echo locate to find their prey.
12. In the swamp ponds and lagoons Ciclids are the major fish species. Petinia species are noted in that about one out of a thousand are golden red in color. They are the dominants in the school.
13. The main dry season flowers are Erythrimas. They are eaten by Howler Monkeys. Coaties are racoon relatives. They are omnivorous. Tarantulas are eaten after being brushed free of their stinging hairs.
14. In Mangrove trees in the estuaries are used by termites. They are feed on in turn by Tamanduas. These tear the termite nests apart and lap up the termites with a long sticky tongue.
15. Manatees are solitary rare marine and fresh water animals. They eat about 100 pounds of vegetation a day. Marine islands called Kayes are resting places for migrating warblers. They are in turn fed upon by boas.
16. The costal coral reef is 175 miles long from Yucatan to the Gulf of Honduras. It is the second largest such reef in the world. Red Footed Boobies and Frigate birds nest in the off shore islands. Frigate Birds are large over eight feet across in wingspread.

America’s Prairie - Where the Sky Began FILM

1. Originally there were @ 400 million acres of grassland on the North American continent. Large weather systems produce massive thunder storms and lightening strikes set grass fires. Grasslands depend upon fires to keep them free of shrubs and trees. Most grassland species of both grasses and wildflowers are perennial. As fires take place the above ground temperature can be as high as 400 degrees Fahrenheit. This can be as close as three inches above the ground. Under ground however temperatures are only a few degrees warmer than normal allowing for surface animals (13 Lined Ground Squirrels, Box Turtles, etc.) to seek shelter in burrows. Fire serves as a renewing force in most ecosystems.

2. @ 65 million years ago there were no grasslands in North America. The entire land mass was forested. The land was flat due to it having been sea floor. As the Rocky Mountains rose they blocked western weather fronts causing a drying on the eastern slopes. This is often termed a “rain shadow” effect. This drying effect caused the existing forests to die out and grasses to replace the trees. The grasses produced were: in the shadow of the Rockies - short grass, Central region - mixed grasses, and in the east - tall grass prairie. In addition @ 18 thousand years ago glaciers also helped to shape the land stabilizing the grasslands.

3. Grass root systems mat the soil preventing erosion and as they decompose they provide rich fertilizer for plants.150 major species of grasses are common and @ 300 species of wildflowers dominate the land. Example grasses are: Big Bluestem, Little Bluestem, Switch Grass, Indian Grass, and Prairie Cord Grass. Big Blue Stem can be has tall as 12 feet. Prairies are living ecosystems made up of communities and populations of both plants and animals.

4. Spring rains in April, as much as 30 inches in the tall grass prairies, enrich the land loosening the soil and activating earthworms. Per acre there are as many as 150 pounds of earthworms. Earthworms consume and recycle the soil at the same time aerating it.

5. In the spring Greater Prairie Chickens do courtship dances and mate.The male courtship dances are spectacular They are the signature birds of the Tall Grass Prairie. In the summer it is much warmer and tall grass species are most common along with taller wild flowers. Prairie Voles are active burrowing mammals. In the fall, the cooler season, wet land areas serve migratory water foul such as: Mallards, Teal, Cranes, and Snow Geese. During the winter grasses stop growing. They store energy in their roots and wait for spring. Wild flowers are insect pollinated and grasses are wind pollinated.

6. The major large mammal of the prairies was the Bison. At one time there was a single large herd of between 30 to 60 million individuals. A cow can live for as much as 20 years giving birth each year of its mature life. In the past wolves culled the herds taking out the weak and diseased purifying the gene pool. The herds followed grass fires feeding on new grass shoots. In addition their droppings provided fertilizer for prairie plants. Today @ 150,000 Bison remain due to hunting during the latter part of the 19th century.

7. Grasshoppers are among the most numerous of the prairie insects. There are known to be @ 108 species in Kansas alone. They migrate into grass areas causing devastation as their numbers increase. Many species are host specific on certain grass species. Orb Spiders feed on the grasshoppers and Ladybugs feed on aphids. Prairie insects can number as many as 10 million per acre of grassland. They are not always destructive as they are pollinators, recyclers, and food for other animals particularly birds. Monarch Butterflies are abundant. They mate in the spring time and their larvae feed on Milkweed. On the average a female Monarch can lay as many as 100 eggs singly at a time. The Milkweed toxins accumulate in the brightly colored butterflies. Potential predators are warned that they are poisonous to eat by their bright orange, yellow, black, and white colors. This is termed “warning coloration”. In the fall they migrate annually into either Mexico or California. Most got to Mexico.

8. Prairie birds are specialized for feeding on plant seeds and insects. They have excellent vision. Because of few large plants many species nest on the ground where their eggs and young are often fed on by Prairie King Snakes. The Logger Head Shrike also called the “Butcher Bird” feed on not only insects but also small snakes and mammals. They impale their prey on Honey Locust thorns storing them there until used for food. The Prairie Skink is a common lizard species which lays @ 21soft shelled eggs at a time. They generally hatch after @ three weeks. Collared Lizards are also common. When in danger they run on their hind legs. At night owls and rattlesnakes hunt warm blooded prey, particularly mice and other small mammals.

9. In the 19th Century President Thomas Jefferson encouraged settlement of the west. Free land was offered as incentive. The Lewis and Clark Expedition was sent to find grasslands suitable for framing and possible trade routes for crops and other produce. Immigrants practiced “Cultural Replication.” That is they tried to create a life style that they were use to rather than trying to adapt to the new surroundings. This caused great habitat destruction. In addition they fought fire, not realizing that it was a natural and very necessary part of the ecosystem. They also changed the prairies by bringing in non-native plants and animals. It has been said that they came with a vision of former places rather than seeing where they were. To begin with they tried to plant by using wooden plows. In 1837 John Deer invented the self cleaning steel plow in Illinois. Prior to this wooden plows were used and the rich prairie soil stuck to the plows. This forever changed the scene in agricultural activities in the United States. During the 1870’s and 80’s after the Civil War railroads brought in settlers not only from the east but also from Europe. Barbed Wire was introduced in the 1870’s forever changing the freedom of movement on the grasslands. The buffalo were killed off nearly driving them to extinction. It took 65 million years to create the grasslands and less than 100 years to totally alter the ecosystem.

10. Several agencies are working to improve the situation: the Konza Prairie Reserve Research Center in Kansas, the Tall Grass Prairie Preserve in Oklahoma, the Land Institute of Kansas, and the Walnut Creek Wildlife Refuge and Learning Area in Iowa are a few. Now native prairie seeds are harvested as a cash crop to be planted to reestablish native grasslands. Most grassland plants are perennials.

11. Famed American poet Walt Whitman said “The Prairies are the fundamental American landscape”.

1. In the Cretaceous Period @ 125 million years ago in west central Argentina in the Valley of the Moon (Ichiwasto) the first predatory dinosaurs developed. The valley is a rift @50 miles long and 900 feet thick. Dr. William Sill hunts the site for fossils. Eoraptor (Dawn Thief) the earliest dinosaur predator known.
2. The Rhyncosaurus was similar to a pig in physical structure and the major prey of the Eoraptor.
3. Dr. Paul Serino of the University of Chicago and Ricardo Martinez study fossils of Herarosaurus. The species was @15 feet long and weighed @500 pounds.
4. At 210 million years ago on the supercontinent of Pangea predators were small.
5. Dimetrodon was a sail backed species which was an ancestor of mammals. It was the dominant species of the period. Coelophysus was a small North American predator at the period. Its fossils are often found at Ghost Ranch.
6. Carnivorous dinosaurs are of a type called Therapods. The name means “Beast Foot.”
7. Ornithonemus and Gallimimus are examples of small bird-like carnivorous species.
8. Dr. Jim Kirkland of Dinosaur Dynamation discovered Utahraptor in 1999 from the Cretaceous Beds in Utah. The species was @20 feet long weighing @ 1,000 pounds. It had a 12 inch killer claw on each hind foot. Dinosaurs of this type belong to a group called Dromeosaurs. Denionichus and Velociraptor are other examples.
9. These species were pack hunters, built for speed, and intelligent. The group as a whole became smallerin size through time rather than larger.
10. In Alberta Canada during the Jurassic Period the Trolodon was the major small carnivore.
11. The carnosaurs were large bipedal meat eaters. Over 500 skeletons to date have been excavated from the Alberta Badlands by Dr. Philip Curry of the Royal Tyrell Museum.
12. About 200 million years ago Pangea broke apart separating dinosaur populations. This set the stage for massive evolutionary changes. Isolation is the driving factor. During this time plant eaters became huge and the carnivores adapted to meet the challenge.
13. Most of the Carnosaurs were @ 20 plus feet long and bipedal. Albertosaurus is a classic example. Ornithomimids were a fast agile species.
14. At the end of the Cretaceous the giants emerged and plant eaters were armored to meet the challenge. Examples are: Triceratops and Ankylosaurus.
15. In Argentina Dr. Jose Bonaparte discovers a horned carnosaur and named it Carnotarus. It could spread its jaws sideways as well as open. In North America Tyrannosaurus, Spinosaurus, and Allosaurus were the dominant species.
16. About 400 miles from the South Pole in 1991 the largest crested carnosaur was found. It is the Phylophosaurus.
17. At end of the Cretaceous @ 65 million years ago an asteroid six miles across struck the earth in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico and wiped out the last of the dinosaurs. Prior to this the rise of flowering plants and epidemic disease had taken their toll on dinosaur populations.

1. Near Medicine Bow, Wyoming Dr. Robert Bakker hunts for Ichthyosaur fossils. The area was under water as part of the Tethys Sea during the age of reptiles @ 240 million years ago.
2. In the global Tethys Sea plankton was abundant providing food for numerous fish. They intern would provide food for sea going reptiles as they evolved. Reptiles were driven to the marine environment due to pressures on land.
3. In 1987 Dr. Chris McGowan of the Royal Ontario Museum searched for the earliest of the marine reptile predators. Ichthyosaurs (Fish Lizards) were dolphin-like in appearance and could swim at @ 45 mph. They ranged from salmon to whale sized and had very large eyes for hunting in dimly light water. They also gave live birth and were both predators and cannibals. The first fossils of the type were discovered in
   England in 1811.
4. In the lime stone quarries (Poseidon Slates) of Holzmaden, Germany over 3,000 skeletons have been excavated. The area was a lagoon @ 160 million years ago.
5. The Half Museum in Stutgart, Germany has a fossil Plesiosaur dating from the 1790's. The Plesiosaurs were predators in Cratonic Seaways (inland waterways) found toward the centers of most continents during the age of reptiles.
6. 190 million years ago Plesiosaurs dominated the seas. They averaged @ 5 tons, had long necks, and 4 flippers. There were @ two dozen species. The short necked species were called Pliosaurs. They could swim at @ 35 mph. The largest species of this type @ 130 million years ago was the Kronosaur. It was about 50 feet long and had a 12 foot head.
7. Elasmosaurs were the large long necked species. The largest was Mosasuchus maximus. It was @ 40 feet long. Dr. Bill Galliger of the New Jersey Museum studies this species. He has found that it had double hinged jaws and secondary teeth on The ptergoid bone.
8. The giant sea reptiles disappeared at the end of the Cretaceous. Dr. Bakker indicates that there have been 6 major dinosaur extinctions. The extinction in question probably occurred because of plankton dieing out at the time and starvation taking its toll.
9. 25 million years ago another giant predator swam the seas. It was the giant shark Megalodon. It is suspected that these feed upon whales and dolphins. Dr. Michael Godfreid of the Calbert Marine Museum studies the fossil of these along the Chesapeake Bay. They were @ 50 feet long and had 6 inch serrated
   teeth.
10. Sharks have cartilage skeletons so fossil remains are poor.
11. About 50 million years ago a wolf-like predator hunted fish at the edges of the Tethys Sea.
12. Fossils of early whales are studied at Shark Tooth Hill. Dr. Larry Barnes is a major scientist involved.
13. In 1859 Charles Darwin published “Origin of the Species.” In this book he speculated about the possibility of a bear-like animal hunting at the edge of the sea as the fore runner of whales. He was laughed at.
14. In 1861 Archaeopteryx was discovered. It is the missing link between birds and reptiles.
15. In 1834 Dr. Richard Harlan discovered Basilosaurus in Louisiana. It is a primitive whale.
16. In 1989 in Egypt Dr. Philip Gainbridge of the University of Michigan found the fossil of a primitive whale with small legs.
17. In 1983 in Pakistan the fossils of Pakicetus was found. It has a wolf-like skull indicating that it was evolved from a creature called a Mesonichid. These were much like wolfs and lived near the edge of the sea hunting fish.
18. In 1993 Indocetus was found in India. It is a prehistoric whale with fused tail bones and hind legs.
19. In 1994 Dr. Hans Tawasen from North Easter Ohio College of Medicine discovered the fossils of Ambulocetus natans. The names means walking swimming whale. It swam with its feet like seals do today.
20. Dr. Philip Gainbridge found Rhodocetus. It is the earliest known whale to swim by moving it’s tail up and down. Between 1987 and 1994 most of the fossils of whales have been found.
21. Sea Cows and manatees followed the same style of evolution. Their fossils have also been found on Shark
    Tooth Hill in California.

1. 60 million years before the first birds Pterosaurs took to the air. Dr. Chris Bennet works the fossil chalk beds of the Niobrera Sea in western Kansas. The sea reached from North Dakota south to northern Mexico. The sea existed @ 85 million years ago.
2. Pterodactyl species varied in size. The largest has wingspans of @ 20 feet. They soared above the water hunting fish as many sea birds do today. Over the last 125 years about 1,100 fossils have been found.
3. In 1870 famed paleontologist O. C. Marsh discovered the first specimen of Pteranodon.
4. Pterosaur evolution came in two waves: tailed forms and non-tailed forms. The tailed primitive forms were Ramphorynchoids and the non-tailed forms were the Pterodactyloids. The first forms lasted @ 50 million years. The last group developed @ 180 million years ago.
5. Dr. H. G. Seely of Cambridge University wrote Dragons of the Air in which he argued the point that they were warm blooded. His ideas were largely ignored.
6. Dr. Robert Bakker thinks that because of their muscular structure and the requirements for powerful flight that they were warm blooded and intelligent. Dr. Kevin Padien of the University of California at Berkeley says that they had very strong hollow bones. This made them very light
   weight.
7. Dr. Kevin Patien says that due to the structure of the hind legs that they walked much like birds.
8. The largest species had huge head crests often longer than the body. These were perhaps used for steering in the air.
9. In 1972 in Big Bend National Park in souther Texas a fossil wing of the largest species ever found was excavated. The species Quetzaquatalus northropi. It had a 39 foot wingspread. In 1985 an aeronautical engineer Dr. Paul MacRaty built a flying model of this species.
10. It is argued that the large size of the last species was a possible cause of their extinction.
11. About a million years ago in caves in Asia our early ancestors struggled for survival. They were both predators and prey. Saber Toothed Cats existed at the same time.
12. At the time most of southern Asia was tropical rain forest. The most famous fossils have been found near Beijing (Peking), China in the Chokotien (Dragon Bone Hill) Cave.
13. In 1891 Dr. Eugene Dubois found the first fossils of what he called Java Man, Homo erectus. His ideas were rejected and he stored the fossils under the floor boards of his house. In 1936 he was visited by Dr. Ralph von Kernigsvald who took the fossils for study. He went back to Java and found another site. It took five years of work to unearth the next near complete skeleton.
14. In the 1920's and 1930's Dr. Franz Videnreich tried to take a series of fossils to the USA from China. These were destroyed during the outbreak of the second World War. He had made casts
    and these came to the US for study.
15. Fossil skeleton of teenage boy found on the shore of Lake Turkana in Kenya, Africa in 1984 by
    paleontologist Kamoya Kanu.
16. In 1994 discoveries were made in China. These are being studied by Dr. Russell Shohan. As layers in their cave shows that they used fire. Stone tools were also found. Many fossils are now being found in Asia that predate the African finds. These bring up questions as to where the origins of early man actually are. It had been assumed that they originated in Africa. Now science is not sure.
17. Dr. Milford Walpov of the University of Michigan and Dr. Allen Thorn of the Australian National University argue for the Asian origin theory.
    

1. First dinosaur fossils found in the gypsum mines in Momrat, France in 1796.
2. Fossils taken to Georges Cuvier at the Paris Museum of Natural History. He coins the term“dinosaur” and is the first to discuss extinction.
3. Steven J. Gould of Harvard University is the leading evolutionary biologist in the world today.
4. The “Bone Wars” in Wyoming and Colorado in 1877 unearthed 130 new species of dinosaurs.
5. Edward Cope and O. C. Marsh competed with each other for fossils.
6. One of the best collections in the world today is at the Royal Tyrell Museum in Alberta, Canada.
7. Dr. Robert Bakker of the Museum of the University of Colorado at Boulder is one of the major paleontologists in the world today. He discovered that dinosaurs were warm blooded and much about their physiology.
8. Dinosaur footprints are preserved at Dinosaur Valley State Park near Glenrose, Texas. Prints were worked on in 1940 by Dr. Roland T. Byrd of the American Museum of Natural History. He collected tracks.
9. Dr. Jack Horner of the Museum of the Rockies discovered dinosaur nests and eggs. He discovered 2 species, Hypsilophodon and Myosora. The first left their nests early the second were nest bound and cared for by the parents. The predator Truledon fed on the latter as young.
10. First dinosaur nests and eggs were found by Roy Chapman Andrews in Mongolia in 1922.
11. Dr. Philip Curry of the Royal Tyrell Museum studies the migrations of Centrasaurus and scavenger species.
12. Dr. David Wisenhample of Johns Hopkins University studies the sound making capacity of Parasaurolophus and other related species.
13. Dr. Robert Bakker says that dinosaurs are the direct ancestors of the @ 8,400 species of modern birds. He also discovered the new species of dinosaur called Nanotyrannus at the Chicago Museum of Natural History. It is much like a small Tyrannosaurus rex.
14. By the end of the Cretaceous period of geological history @ 65 million years ago all dinosaurs were extinct. Their extinction was caused by: The advent of flowering plants, epidemic disease, and the asteroid strike @ 65 million years ago. The asteroid strike wiped out not only the dinosaurs but also 1/2 of all life on the planet. We now know that @ 90% of all species that have ever existed are extinct. Extinction is a required and natural part of the processes of life on the planet.
15. Before he became president Thomas Jefferson argued against the possibility of extinction.

1. Carolus Linnaeus, Swedish Botanist, sought to understand the order in nature.
2. He classified plants by the position of their sex organs and published Systema Naturae in its 10th edition in 1758. His studies were carried out at Upsula, Sweden.
3. The “Great Chain of Being” was a Swiss idea based upon Aristotle’s “Ladder of Life.”
4. The French zoo keeper , Buffont, of The Paris Zoo wrote a series of 44 volumes of natural history books in 1778 discussing the similarities of living things.
5. The English surveyor - engineer Smith while building canals discovered the principle that different layers of geological strata each have distinctive fossils. He first discussed the idea of the possibility of extinction.
6. In 1794, Geroges Cuvier of the Paris Natural history Museum (the old zoo) studied comparative anatomy and gave a historic lecture on the idea of extinction. In 1808 he developed the idea that catastrophies caused the extinction of species.
7. Oxford professor William Butland said that extinctions was caused by the Biblical great flood. He published on the idea in 1823. He could not explain the extinction of fishes. He ate grilled mice on toast!
8. Hutton, Scottish geologist studied the effects of erosion.
9. Butland student, George Scroff, investigated the effects of erosion on ancient lava flows.
10. Butland student, Sir Charles Leyell, who published the book, Principles of Geology, studied Mount Aetna in Italy in 1826. He discovered that there were volcanic cones on top of cones suggesting great age. He then found fossil clam shells in limestone deposits running under the entire volcano. It meant that they were millions of years old proving an ancient earth.
11. In 1857 Alfred Russell Wallace traveled in Malaysia collecting insects and by doing so discovered the principles of“Natural Selection.” He wrote to Charles Darwin informing him of his discoveries. This prompted the publication of Darwin’s book, Origin of the Species.
12. Both had read the political essay of Thomas Malthus about human population density and the food supply. Both knew that it applied not only to humans but also plants and animals also.
13. Zoologist, scientist, philosopher Earnest Heckle published the Natural History of Creation in 1868 and The Riddle of the Universe in 1899. He was an atheist that thought that Darwin had all the answers and thus justified the concept of“survival of the fittest” in human terms.
14. His writings were the foundation of Teutonic racist thought. This was first embraced by King Ludwig of Bavaria. His ideas were accepted by Hienrik Hiemler and Adolph Hitler to justify genocide.
15. Yale University professor Sumner applied these same writing to business procedures in the United States. He published his ideas in 1883.
16. Karl Marx was also influenced by these ideas and Vladimer Ulyanov (Lenin) carried them to Russia. This started the Russian Revolution in October of 1917 and Communism came into existence.
17. These ideas of Earnest Heckle are called “Social Darwinism” today. They try justify the actions and enslavement of weaker nations and peoples. Such thinking is a reversion to Platonic thinking as opposed to Aristotelian rational.
18. The end results were the two world wars and enslavement and deaths of millions!

1. The Indian Forican Bird leaps into the air to attract potential mates. Nightingales in England overwinter in Africa. When they arrive in England they sing into the night to attract night flying females.
2. Dwarf Siberian Hamster females on the central Asian Steppes mark the entrance to their burrows at the time they are about to give birth with glandular secretions. These attract males in the area. They have three hours after bearing their young to provide them with milk before coming into heat again for their
   next mating.
3. On coral reefs Butterfly Fish and Angel Fish are of similar size and shape. They attract mates by species distinctive markings. Each has its very distinctive coloration and color patterns.
4. Boobies, a type of sea birds signal to each other with colored feet. Blue Footed Boobies not only signal but also attract potential mates by placing nesting materials on the females feet to signal their intentions.
5. Male ducks during mating season have distinctive colored plumage to signal to females. Classic examples are Wood Ducks and Mergansers. Females are always drab colored for protection sake. Male ducks imprint on their mothers at hatching and in this way learn the appearance of their species females
   for mating. If they imprint on the wrong species then mating can not take place.
6. Central American Helicopter Damselfly males stake out pools of water to attract females. These are the largest Damselfly species in the world. They are spider hunters. They capture spiders out of their own webs for food. North American Hanging Flies attract potential females by bribing them with food. They then mate while the females are eating.
7. Tropic Birds and Hawks do spectacular flight displays in courtship and mating.
8. Red Banded Salamanders droppings are evaluated by females to determine the males diet. This lets her know if the male has a good territory relative to food supply. Termites are favored food ants are not. After making her determination she follows the male to his burrow and mates with him.
9. Bull Moose establish their territory by urinating in a dug pit. This attracts females that wallow in the deposit. This marks them with scent and lest the males know that they are ready to mate.
10. Sack Winged Bats in Trinidad let off perfume to attract mates. Male Epauletted Bats attract females by flashing white patches under the wings. Lyre Birds of Australia dance for females. In special clearings. Tragopans of Western China use inflated blue wattles to attract mates. Courtship dances by Standard Winged Birds of Paradise from the Mollucas, Peacocks Pheasants from the Philippines, and Peacocks from India use elaborate feather displays to attract females.
11. Bower Bird males construct display areas that they ornament with colored materials from their surrounds to attract females. In Trinidad Manikin birds attract females with colors and dance displays. The Long Tailed Manikin males dance in pairs for females.
12. n Africa Topi Antelope establish staging areas to attract females. The strongest are near the centers of these closely packed staging areas. Those near the center are preferred by the females. Lesser males are at the edges where they are subject to predation.

1. The word “museum” literally means Temple or Seat of the Muses. The Muses were the nine goddesses of the ancient Mediterranean World. They were the goddesses of WISDOM and INSPIRATION. Scholars who went to the temple to worship gradually got the idea that if these goddesses inspired wisdom then where better to pursue their academic studies. Gradually through time the temples became places of study rather than worship.
2. The first museum was also called the ALEXANDRIAN MUSEUM, OR MUSEUM OF ALEXANDRIA, Greek MOUSEION, ancient centre of classical learning at Alexandria in Egypt. A research institute that was especially noted for its scientific and literary scholarship, the Museum was built near the royal palace either by Ptolemy II Philadelphus about 280 BC or by his father Ptolemy I Soter (reigned 323-285/283 BC). The best surviving description of the Museum is by the Greek geographer and historian Strabo, who mentions that it was a large complex of buildings and gardens with richly decorated lecture and banquet halls linked by porticos, or colonnaded walks. It was organized in faculties with a president-priest at the head; the salaries of the scholars on the staff were paid by the Egyptian king and later by the Roman emperor. The renowned Library of Alexandria ormed a part of the Museum. In AD 272 the buildings of the Museum were destroyed in the civil war under the Roman emperor Aurelian, although the educational and research functions of the institution seem to have continued until the 5th century.
3. The word museum has classical origins. In its Greek form, mouseion, it meant "seat of the Muses" and designated a philosophical institution or a place of contemplation. Use of the Latin derivation, museum, appears to have been restricted in Roman times mainly to places of philosophical discussion.
4. Thus the great Museum at Alexandria, founded by Ptolemy I Soter early in the 3rd century BC, with its college of scholars and its library, was more a prototype university than an institution to preserve and interpret material aspects of the heritage. The word museum was revived in 15th-century Europe to describe the collection of Lorenzo de' Medici in Florence, but the term conveyed the concept of comprehensiveness rather than denoting a building. By the 17th century museum was being used in Europe to describe collections of curiosities. Ole Worm's collection in Copenhagen was so called, and in England visitors to John Tradescant's collection in Lambeth (now a London borough) called the array there a museum; the catalog of this collection, was published in 1656. Use of the word museum during the 19th and most of the 20th century denoted a building housing cultural material to which the public had access. Later, as museums continued to respond to the societies that created them, the emphasis on the building itself became less dominant. Open-air museums, comprising a series of buildings preserved as objects, and ecomuseums, involving the interpretation of all aspects of an outdoor environment, provide examples of this. In addition, so-called virtual museums exist in electronic form on the Internet. Although virtual museums provide interesting opportunities for and bring certain benefits to existing museums, they remain dependent upon the collection, preservation, and interpretation of material things by the real museum.
5. In the United States The Smithsonian Institution, in Washington, D.C., came into existence through the remarkable bequest of nearly one-half million dollars from James Smithson, an Englishman. He wished to see established in the United States an institution "for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." In 1846 the U.S. Congress accepted his bequest and passed legislation establishing the Smithsonian as an institution charged with representing "all objects of art and curious research . . . natural history, plants, [and] geological and mineralogical specimens" belonging to the United States. The U.S. National Museum opened in 1858 as part of the Smithsonian's scientific program and formed the first of its many museums, most of which stand along the Mall in Washington, D.C.
6. Many kinds of museums exist. There even museums for baseball cards. A NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM is a museum where non-man made items are studied. Natural literally means “of nature” and history is generally regarded as “pertaining to the past.” The reality is however that today is really tomorrow’s history. So history really means a study of the past, present, and future. Thus a natural history museum is a place where the “past, present, and future” of non-man made things are studied.
7. Museums of all types have three major functions: TO EDUCATE THE PUBLIC, TO ARCHIVE AND PRESERVE SPECIMENS, AND TO DO RESEARCH.
8. Among the largest Natural History Museums in the World are: The British Museum of Natural History, and The Paris Museum of Natural History. In the United States the largest are: The American Museum of Natural History New York, The National Museum of Natural History at the Smithsonian, The Field Museum Chicago, The Denver Museum of Natural History, and The Natural History Museum of the California Academy of Sciences. Literally hundreds of other fine museums around the World and country also are very well known.
9. Although small The Amarillo College Natural History Museum is very well known. It attracts thousands of visitors annually and also research scientists from institutions such as the: Smithsonian, Field Museum, Denver Museum, Monte L. Bean Life Science Museum, and the Florida Collection of Arthropods.
10. The Amarillo College Natural History Museum is blessed to have many benefactors not the least of which are: Jim J. Brewer and Bill Britain of Safari Club International, The safari Club International itself, Richard Howard, Michael Ray Evans of Canyon, Randall Scott Fauske, Nola Ash, and many others.
    

1. Ecology is the study of interaction between organisms and their environments.
2. Today's ecologists use the tools of the new technology in making their observations, analyzing their data. and recording information. Systems ecology utilizes model ecosystems for studying the impact of variables in the environment.

1. The biosphere includes all of the regions of the earth that support life. The entire region is a thin layer some fourteen miles in thickness
2. Conditions include adequate water. a certain narrow range of temperatures. sunlight. or other energy input. carbon. hydrogen. oxygen. nitrogen. and various minerals.

1. Life is distributed into biomes. which support certain kinds of plant life. Climatic conditions within a biome are responsible for its characteristics.
2. Biomes are subdivided into communities which are interacting populations of organisms.
3. The distribution of biomes tends to follow latitude lines. Gradual transitions from one community type to another are called ecoclines.

1. The Arctic tundra is found across northern Alaska, Canada, and Siberia. It is characterized by long cold winters, short cool summers, and low precipitation (less than 10 inches per year) and dry winds. These conditions make the Arctic tundra a desert-like climate. One unique characteristic is permafrost--ground that is permanently frozen. Because the permafrost has no cracks or pores, nothing can penetrate it--neither plant roots nor water.
2. The surface layer above the permafrost thaws each summer and is called the active layer. Thickness of the active layer depends on its location in the tundra. The more northerly the location, the thinner the active layer is.
3. Curiously, during the summer Arctic tundra is characterized by large amounts of surface water. Because when snow melts, the water percolates through the active layer but is unable to penetrate the permafrost and since the water has nowhere to go, the active layer becomes saturated and pools of water form on the surface.
4. Another characteristic of the Arctic tundra is the limited amount of sunlight it receives due to the position of the Sun in the sky. Depending on the latitude, the Sun can remain below the horizon for up to 2 months, leaving the Arctic tundra in darkness. Although the sun remains in the sky 24 hours a day during the summer, it stays close to the horizon and provides only low intensity sunlight.

1. The taiga is found in the northern hemisphere close to the polar region. This cold biome stretches across the northern portions of North America, Europe, and Asia. A number of large population centers, such as Moscow and Toronto, can be found in the southern portion of this biome, but the northern portion is relatively unpopulated.
2. There is a wide range of temperatures between winter and summer seasons. The winters being long and cold, and the summers being short and cool. Precipitation is moderately high throughout the year with snow occurring during the winter months. Most of the taiga in North America was once covered with glaciers that have receded, leaving gouges and depressions in the landscape. Since there is moderately high precipitation, these gouges and depressions are frequently filled with water, creating bogs and lakes.
3. The soil found in the taiga is low in nutrients and high in acid being rocky and covered with non-decayed leaf litter. Patches of permafrost can also be found in areas of the taiga.

1. Deserts receive less dun 25 cm, (10 in) of rain per year. Temperatures in deserts vary according to latitude and they are not necessarily hot places.
2. Some deserts are produced and maintained by high mountain ranges that block coastal precipitation. Mountains cause desert conditions by forming rain shadows, as is clearly seen in the American deserts.
3. Large deserts are found on all continents except Europe and Antarctica All deserts experience dramatic day-night fluctuations in temperature.
4. Deserts are created along the 300 north and south latitude lines. They are in regions where air cells originating at the equator have lost their moisture.

1. Plants adapted to desert conditions are called xerophytes. Some become dormant. while others store water.
2. The annuals germinate after brief rains, quickly producing flowers and seeds before drought conditions return.
3. A few species, widely distributed, usually dominate a particular desert.
4. Short grasses, sagebrush, creosote bushes, and cacti are just a few of the plants that can be found in the desert. Plant abundance and variety are determined by the geographic location of the desert. Although short grasses can be found in nearly all desert locations, the saguaro cactus is unique to the Sonoran Desert, and the spiniflex is associated with the Australian Desert. Because of the dry climate, plants have developed a number of different methods of capturing water. Some plants have developed long (20-30 foot) taproots that go deep into the ground and tap into groundwater sources.

1. Rodents survive by spending daytime in burrows and venturing out at night. Their predators follow the some routine.
2. Some survive without water through behavioral and physiological strategies. The kangaroo rat rarely drinks, but lives off metabolic water conserved by a highly efficient kidney. The camel drinks huge quantities of water. survives dehydration. and withstands unusual changes in body temperature.
3. The desert is a relatively simple biome and can be easily disrupted through careless human, acts. It can become productive if water is present. but its exploitation can produce irrevocable changes.

1. Grasslands exist as huge inland plains in North America. Asia. Australia. South America. and Africa. Grasslands exist in areas where there is a 6 to 8 month wet summer season and a dry winter season. Annual rainfall varies depending on the geographic location from as little as 10 inches of rain annually while others can get as much as 50 inches. The dry season is marked by months of drought and fire which are essential to natural maintenance.. Without the period of drought and fire, it is believed that tropical savannas would eventually change into tropical forests.
2. Grasslands can result from either climate, soil conditions, animal behavior, or agricultural practices, which limit the occurrence of trees. Humans may also create grasslands by burning vegetation and felling the trees in order to plant crops. Large animals such as elephants can turn a forest into a grassland by stripping the bark from the trees, knocking over trees, and tramping on tree seedlings.
3. Grasses dominate this biome. Much of the grassland however is utilized for growing grains.
4. Rainfall is seasonal and limited. Grasses survive by producing deep diffuse root systems and by becoming dormant.
5. The animals of grasslands produce huge populations and include the largest herbivores. The grasses are well adapted to resist grazing
6. The food webs of grasslands are complex and relatively stable. Occasionally insect populations explode out of control and devastate this biome. Normally grasslands support the largest populations of animals on earth.

1. This biome is supported by heavy rainfall and a warm climate. These forests are found in South America. Africa. India. Burma. Central America. Indonesia and the Philippines. The tropical rainforest is a hot, moist biome found near Earth's equator. Tropical rainforests receive from 60 to 160 inches of precipitation that is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year. The combination of constant warmth and abundant moisture makes the tropical rainforest a suitable environment for many plants and animals.
2. Because these organisms remain active throughout the year, they quickly decompose matter on the forest floor. In other biomes, such as the deciduous forest, the decomposition of leaf litter adds nutrients to the soil. But in the tropical rainforest, plants grow so fast that they rapidly consume the nutrients from the decomposed leaf litter. As a result, most of the nutrients are contained in the trees and other plants rather than in the soil. Most nutrients that are absorbed into the soil are leached out by the abundant rainfall, which leaves the soil infertile and acidic.
3. The hot and humid conditions make tropical rainforests an ideal environment for bacteria and other microorganisms.
4. There not any distinctly dominant species of plants or animals, but there are dominant types. The number of animal and plant species is unequaled in other land biomes. Many are arboreal. Tropical rainforests contain the greatest biodiversity in the world. Over 15 million species of plants and animals live within this biome.
   The canopy is composed of very tall Vines abound as do epiphytes, which absorb water from the air. Species population density is low, but species diversity is great.
5. The forest floor is dark and devoid of foliage. Scavenger and reducer populations abound.
6. The "jungle'' refers to thick growth along rivers or where sunlight reaches the forest floor after disturbances.
7. The number of animal species is unequaled in other land biomes. Many are arboreal. Tropical rainforests contain the greatest biodiversity in the world. Over 15 million species of plants and animals live within this biome.